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Introduction To
Daniel
Author and Title
The book of Daniel, named after and written by Daniel in the , records the events of his life and the visions that he saw from the time of his exile in (1:1) until the third year of King Cyrus (; 10:1). Daniel, whose name means "God is my Judge," was a young man of noble blood who was exiled from Judah during the time of King Jehoiakim () and lived thereafter at the Babylonian court. After the fall of the Babylonian Empire, he served the Medo-Persian Empire that succeeded it.
Date
Both Jewish and Christian (cf. Matt. 24:15) tradition have held that the author of this book is Daniel, a Jew who lived during the Babylonian exile. Many of the chapters are dated and range from the first year of Nebuchadnezzar's reign (; Dan. 1:1) to Cyrus's third year (; 10:1). But because of its detailed prophecies of events in the (see ch. 11) and alleged historical inconsistencies with what scholars know of history (see note on 5:30-31), some scholars have argued that the book must be a document, from the time when Antiochus IV Epiphanes () was oppressing God's people. In that case, it would contain "prophecies after the fact," put into the mouth of a famous historical character rather than being written by Daniel himself. Thus, the visions that "Daniel" saw would attempt to interpret rather than predict history. It has also been argued that the book must be dated later than the due to its language, especially the presence of Persian and Greek loanwords.
However, the facts do not require a late date. In the first place, current knowledge of history is far from complete, and there are plausible harmonizations that explain the alleged discrepancies.
Second, the Bible asserts clearly that the Lord announces ahead of time his plans through his prophets as a means of vindicating his sovereignty and encouraging his people (see Isa. 41:21-24; 44:6-7), and there is no reason in principle why such prophecies should not be detailed and precise. Some scholars, who allow in principle that God can foretell events, nevertheless suggest that such detailed foretelling is unparalleled in the rest of the canonical prophets, and that it cannot be reconciled with the usual purpose of prediction (namely, that the first audience should be faithful to the covenant). In reply, note that Jeremiah did give a specific amount of time for the exile (Jer. 25:11; cf. note on Dan. 9:2). Further, the high degree of specificity in Daniel's prophecies does serve its first audience as well as those to follow: this shows how carefully God has planned events and governs them for his perfect ends; therefore the faithful can recognize that none of their troubles take God by surprise, and none will derail his purpose of vindicating those who steadfastly love him. This is quite relevant to the people of God in Daniel's day, who are on the verge of horrendous devastations and persecutions (see notes on ch. 11); they must be assured that the story will continue to its appointed fulfillment, so that they do not lose heart.
Third, there were likely Greeks and Persians present at the Babylonian court as mercenaries and in other capacities, providing a ready explanation for the presence of loanwords.
Fourth, the book of Daniel was accepted as canonical by the community of Qumran (who produced the Dead Sea Scrolls). This is telling because this group emerged as a separate party in Judaism , before the proposed late date. They would not have accepted the book if it had appeared after the split.
Fifth, some who favor a later date say that the author of Daniel represented Antiochus IV Epiphanes using the figure of Nebuchadnezzar. Literary studies, however, have shown that the book of Daniel puts Nebuchadnezzar in far too positive a light (e.g., he comes to acknowledge the true God) for him to be an effective image of the relentless persecutor Antiochus IV. Of course the book's lesson, about God's sovereignty over even the imperial forces, would have taken a heightened relevance in the days of Antiochus IV; but that is different from saying that the book was written for that particular occasion.
There are therefore no compelling reasons to deny that Daniel wrote this book.
Theme
The central theme of the book of Daniel is God's sovereignty over history and empires, setting up and removing kings as he pleases (2:21; 4:34-37). All of the kingdoms of this world will come to an end and will be replaced by the Lord's kingdom, which will never pass away (2:44; 7:27). Though trials and difficulties will continue for the saints up until the end, those who are faithful will be raised to glory, honor, and everlasting life in this final kingdom (12:1-3).
Purpose, Occasion, and Background
The book of Daniel is made up of two halves, each of which has its own genre. The first half (chs. 1-6) contains narratives from the lives of Daniel and his three friends, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. These court stories exemplify faithful living in exile and provide models of how God's people should live as strangers and exiles in a world that is not their home (Heb. 13:14). They show Daniel and his friends serving their pagan masters loyally, as Jeremiah 29:5-7 had commanded, yet without compromising their greater loyalty to God. The second half of the book (Daniel 7-12) contains apocalyptic visions, which are designed to reassure God's people that in spite of their present persecution and suffering, God is in control and will ultimately be victorious. The Lord is aware of the suffering of his people and will bring their trials to an end on the day when he establishes his kingdom. The final victory belongs to the Ancient of Days and his representative, the Son of Man (ch. 7). When they triumph, the powers and authorities of this world will be defeated and judged, while the saints will be vindicated and rewarded (7:26-27).
The two parts of the book are linked by a variety of literary features:
Key Themes
History of Salvation Summary
The people of Judah could have interpreted their exile to Babylon as the end of their special relationship with God. But not only does the book of Daniel show them that it is possible to be faithful to God even away from the Promised Land, it also shows them that God has not abandoned his plan for the whole world: he controls all of history, even the most dire conflicts, to bring his Messiah's rule to all nations. (For an explanation of the "History of Salvation," see the Overview of the Bible. See also History of Salvation in the Old Testament: Preparing the Way for Christ.)
Literary Features
The book of Daniel is unique in the Bible in falling decisively into two distinct genres in its two halves. The first six chapters are hero stories comprised of six self-contained ordeals. The last six chapters are a series of visions that employ highly symbolic images to portray vast stretches of political and spiritual history. The visions that deal with the end times are apocalyptic visions. The techniques of symbolic reality figure prominently in all of the dreams and visions, including those in the first six chapters; in symbolic reality, the world that is entered consists largely of great symbols instead of literal characters and places.
The prophet Daniel provides the greatest point of unity in the book, since he figures in most of the separate episodes in the narrative half of the book and is the first-person narrator of the visions in the second half. The sovereignty of God is a unifying element in the plot and theme. The "world" of the story is constant, and its main features include the political and courtly arena of action (a world of courts and kings); supernatural and miraculous happenings and characters; dreams and visions; and striking and famous images (the fiery furnace; a disembodied hand that writes on a wall; a lions' den; and a gigantic statue of a man composed of various materials).
Outline
- Daniel and the Three Friends at the Babylonian Court (1:1-6:28)
- The Visions of Daniel (7:1-12:13)
- The vision of four great beasts and the heavenly court (7:1-28)
- The vision of the ram, the goat, and the little horn (8:1-27)
- Daniel's prayer and its answer (9:1-27)
- Daniel's vision of the final conflict (10:1-12:13)
| Babylon | Nebuchadnezzar's | ch. 1 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nebuchadnezzar's | ch. 2 | ||
| Nebuchadnezzar's reign | chs. 3-4 | ||
| Belshazzar's | ch. 7 | ||
| Belshazzar's | ch. 8 | ||
| Belshazzar's last year | ch. 5 | ||
| Persia | Cyrus's | chs. 10-12 | |
| Darius's | ch. 9 | ||
| Darius's reign | ch. 6 |
| Babylon | Nebuchadnezzar | |
|---|---|---|
| Nabonidus | ||
| Co-regent Belshazzar | ||
| Persia | Cyrus | |
| Darius I |
The city of Babylon reached its zenith under Nebuchadrezzar II (Nebuchadnezzar of Scripture, who reigned from ). He restored and enlarged it, making it the largest city seen in the world up to that time. The Euphrates River flowed through it, with the oldest quarter of the city lying on the east bank of the river. The city was surrounded by a city wall with fortified gates that were named after the various Babylonian deities. The Esagila Complex on the east bank of the Euphrates contained the Temple of Marduk with its associated seven-storied ziggurat Etemenanki.
From Esagila, the Processional Way (its walls lined with glazed bricks with representations of lions) led to the Ishtar Gate (which was decorated with glazed brick reliefs of dragons and young bulls). Beside the Ishtar Gate stood two immense fortified palaces. A bridge led over the Euphrates to the western part of the city. No evidence of the famed Hanging Gardens of Babylon has been found, but if anything like this was ever constructed here, it would have been during this time, at the height of the city's splendor. The city was captured by Cyrus the Persian in
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| Babylonian Empire () | Medo-Persian Empire () | Greek Empire () | Roman Empire () | Future Events | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vision of Statue (ch. 2) | head of gold (vv. 36-38) | chest and arms of silver (vv. 32, 39) | middle and thighs of bronze (vv. 32, 39) | legs of iron; feet of iron and clay (vv. 33, 40-43) | messianic kingdom stone (vv. 44-45) |
| Vision of Tree (ch. 4) | Nebuchadnezzar humbled (vv. 19-37) | ||||
| Vision of Four Beasts (ch. 7) | lion with wings of eagle (v. 4) | bear raised up on one side (v. 5) | leopard with four wings and four heads (v. 6) | terrifying beast with iron teeth (v. 7) | Antichrist little horn uttering great boasts (vv. 8-11) |
| Vision of Ram and Goat (ch. 8) | ram with two horns: one longer than the other (vv. 2-4) | male goat with one horn: it was broken and four horns came up (vv. 5-8); Antiochus IV (vv. 23-26) |
Though their empire was short-lived by comparison with the Assyrians before them and the Persians after them, the Babylonians dominated the Near East during the early days of Daniel, and they were responsible for his initial exile to Babylon. Daniel himself, however, outlived the Babylonian Empire, which fell to the Persians in
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After Cyrus the Great united the Median and Persian empires, he overthrew the Babylonians and established the greatest power the world had ever known. Under later rulers the Persian Empire eventually extended from Egypt and Thrace to the borders of India, and Cyrus himself declared, "the Lord, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth" (2 Chron. 36:23; Ezra 1:2). Consistent with his regular policies to promote loyalty among his subjugated peoples, Cyrus immediately released the exiled Jews from their captivity in Babylon and even sponsored the rebuilding of the temple.
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The ascension of Alexander the Great to the throne of the Macedonian kingdom (in northern Greece) spelled the end for the mighty Persian Empire. After gaining the loyalty of the other city-states of Greece, Alexander's astounding military prowess and success enabled him to systematically overtake virtually all of Persia's former territory within . Soon after he died in Babylon at
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The two most powerful successors to Alexander, Ptolemy and Seleucus, continued to expand their domains into territory claimed by other generals of Alexander, and they repeatedly clashed with each other over land along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, including the land later called Palestine.
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In the absence of legitimate heirs following the death of Alexander the Great in (cf. 1 Macc. 1:5-9), four of his generals divided the conquered territory of his empire into fourths (which then included most of the known world throughout Europe and Asia Minor; see notes on Dan. 7:6; 8:8; 8:20-22; 11:4). By , three Hellenistic kingdoms had stabilized out of the four divisions:
Geographically, Judea was wedged in the middle of the aggressive struggle between the kings "of the south" (Egyptian Ptolemies) and "of the north" (Syrian Seleucids) spoken of in Daniel 11. God's people received their most degrading attack when the Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes () set up "the abomination that makes desolate" (Dan. 11:31) in the Jerusalem temple. This event precipitated the Maccabean Revolt () and the reestablishment of Jewish rule in Judea through the Hasmonean dynasty (Mattathias and his sons). Independent Hasmonean rule lasted over a century until Judea was finally conquered by the Roman general Pompey in
The Edomite Herod the Great, through his marriage to Mariamne I (d. ), Hasmonean daughter of Alexandra and Alexander, claimed to be a "legitimate" Jewish heir to the Hasmonean throne. The Roman Senate declared Herod the Great "King of the Jews" in , giving him vassal rulership over Palestine (comprised of the provinces Judea and Galilee). His rule did not begin until , however, when he was able to recapture Jerusalem from Antigonus and the Parthians through the help of Roman forces, to whom he had fled for help three years earlier. (See The Herodian Dynasty.)
Rulers of Syria, Judea, and Egypt after Alexander the Great
The Ptolemaic Dynasty (): The name "Ptolemaic" is derived from the name of Ptolemy I Soter (), one of Alexander the Great's three main succeeding generals, and was borne by all subsequent rulers of the line of Greek-speaking kings who ruled Egypt after the death of Alexander the Great () until the country's annexation by Rome ().
The Seleucid Dynasty (312 [305]-80 [60] b.c.: The name "Seleucid" is derived from the name of Seleucus I Nicator (358-281 b.c.,one of Alexander the Great's three main succeeding generals, and was borne by several other rulers in this line of Greek-speaking kings who ruled Syria after the death of Alexander the Great (323)until the country's annexation by Rome as a result of Pompey's conquests (63).
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Rulers of Judea/Palestine after the Maccabean Revolt
The Hasmonean (Maccabean) Dynasty (): The name "Hasmonean" is now generally thought to derive from a place name, either Heshmon or Hashmonah. However, Josephus says that the name of Hashman (Gk. Asamōnaios; see Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 12.265) belonged to the great-grandfather of Mattathias, suggesting that this is the true derivation of "Hasmonean." Mattathias was the father of five sons who were (in order): John (surnamed Gaddi), Simon (called Thassi), Judas (called Maccabeus), Eleazar (called Avaran), and Jonathan (called Apphus) (see 1 Macc. 2:1-5). Mattathias initiated the Maccabean Revolt in
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By the , the Seleucid Empire was losing its grip on much of its territory, and the Roman Empire was rapidly expanding throughout the Mediterranean world. In an attempt to unite his empire and shore up his defenses against these pressures, Antiochus IV Epiphanes imposed a strict policy of Hellenization over his domain, which now included the land of Israel. His policy proved too abhorrent for many Jews, including the Maccabean (also called Hasmonean) family, and in they led a revolt that established a new, independent kingdom of Israel.
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The Maccabean kingdom of Israel had its beginnings when the priest Mattathias and his family refused to obey the Seleucid rulers' order to sacrifice to the pagan god Zeus at Modein. They led a revolt that initially controlled only the territory of Judea in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Over the next hundred years, however, the Maccabean rulers slowly added portions of territory to the kingdom until it resembled the borders of the territory allotted to the Israelite tribes by Joshua.
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