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CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

Like many other biblical books, Chronicles is anonymous and untitled. The name ascribed to the book by the early rabbis, “the book of the events of the days” (sēper diḇrê hayyāmîm), indicates that they viewed Chronicles as a book about past events — a history. The name given in the LXX, Paralipomena, “the things left out,” testifies to another early understanding: Chronicles records the events left out of earlier biblical history. But it was Jerome’s description of the book as a “chronicle,” a summary of divine history, that has proved most influential in the history of Christian interpretation.

Composition, Date, and Sources

By the time the Chronicler wrote in the postexilic period, much of the literature that we associate with the OT was already written. The author draws extensively upon this rich literary tradition. His dependence upon Genesis is evident in the genealogies (1 Chr. 1–9), and his dependence upon Samuel and Kings is obvious in his narration of the Monarchy (1 Chr. 10–2 Chr. 36). The Chronicler’s indebtedness to antecedent literature is not confined, however, to his selective reuse of Genesis, Samuel, and Kings. Parallels with or citations from Joshua, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the Psalms, and Ruth all appear in Chronicles. Scholars generally agree that the Chronicler also had access to extrabiblical sources, but the nature and extent of these sources are disputed.

Within the postexilic period Chronicles is very hard to date. There are no specific references, no absolute synchronisms, and no extrabiblical citations that could definitively situate the book within a given decade or century. Indeed, a range of more than 350 years (from the late 6th to the mid-2nd century b.c.e.) has been suggested. Although an absolute date cannot be assigned, one past the late 3rd century is unlikely. First, one must allow time for Chronicles or Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah to be brought to Egypt and translated into at least two different works (1 Esdras and Paralipomena). Second, Paralipomena is cited by Eupolemos, a Jewish-Hellenistic writer, in the 2nd century (Eusebius Praep. ev. 9.30-34).

Scholars disagree about the compositional history of Chronicles. Some believe that the book underwent a priestly, levitical, or deuteronomistic redaction. Arguments for disunity fail, however, to come to grips with the distinctive features of the Chronicler’s compositional technique: his indebtedness to a variety of earlier biblical traditions, his adroitness in quoting and synthesizing originally disparate passages in the Deuteronomic and Priestly writings, and his ability to negotiate different ideological perspectives. There is no question that one encounters both pro-priestly and pro-levitical passages in Chronicles. But rather than proving that Chronicles underwent major redactions, it is more likely that these texts evince one author’s concern to mediate historically different perspectives within the context of the postexilic age.

Structure and Major Themes

Chronicles has two major sections: the genealogies of 1 Chr. 1–9 and the history of the Monarchy (1 Chr. 10–2 Chr. 36). The first section, which forms the introduction to the work, includes brief genealogies for other peoples to whom Israel (Jacob) is related (1 Chr. 1), but focuses upon the identity and location of Israel’s 12 tribes. The very scope and structure of the Chronicler’s genealogical system underscore the indivisibility of Israel. Yet, Judah, Levi, and Benjamin receive the most extensive genealogies. The Chronicler both creates a comprehensive portrait of his people and underscores the crucial roles played by these three tribes. The list of those in the restored community (1 Chr. 9) calls attention to the continuity between postexilic society and the Israel of ages past. Population shifts, war, political turmoil, natural disaster, and exile are part of shifting history, but God’s relationship with his people endures.

The Chronicler’s coverage of the Monarchy proceeds according to a fundamentally historical outline. After briefly addressing and condemning the reign of Saul (1 Chr. 10), the Chronicler devotes extensive attention to the highly successful rise and reign of David (1 Chr. 11–29) and the glorious tenure of Solomon (2 Chr. 1–9). The rest of the book engages the emergence, continuation, and fall of the kingdom of Judah. By placing David and Solomon’s achievements at the center of Israelite history, the author underscores the Davidic dynasty’s centrality to Israelite life.

In Chronicles, David’s ascent to power is a politician’s dream. Whereas in Samuel the unification of Judah (2 Sam. 2:4) and Israel (5:1-10) under David’s command is a long, arduous, and highly-contested process, in Chronicles representatives from all over Israel come to David to anoint him, acclaim him king, and pledge support (1 Chr. 11–12). David’s first public act as king is to bring the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem. This passion for proper worship, a consistent feature of David’s reign, culminates in his bequeathing to Solomon a generous endowment and detailed plans for building the Jerusalem temple (1 Chr. 22, 28–29). David also devotes great attention to Jerusalem, the Lord’s chosen city (2 Chr. 6:34, 38; 12:13; 33:7), the respective responsibilities of priests and Levites (1 Chr. 15; 23–24), and to matters of song and music (1 Chr. 16:7-36; 25).

But David is more than a patron of worship, the priesthood, and music. He is also an astute leader and military genius. The support David receives and the counsel he seeks from all quarters consolidate Israel’s national solidarity, while David’s extraordinary success against Israel’s neighbors ensures complete control over the land (1 Chr. 11–12; 14; 18–20). His bequeathing a national administration (1 Chr. 23–27) to his divinely chosen son and successor ensures a smooth transfer of power to Solomon and contributes to the latter’s success. Indeed, at the end of David’s reign all Israel, including the rest of David’s sons, acclaims the accession of Solomon (1 Chr. 29:20-25; cf. 2 Sam. 9–20; 1 Kgs. 1–2).

Like David, Solomon receives widespread popular support at the beginning of his reign. He too is an avid patron of worship. Much of Solomon’s reign is, in fact, dedicated to religious matters. At the inception of his reign, all Israel accompanies Solomon in journeying to the tent of the meeting at Gibeon (2 Chr. 1:2-5). In accordance with divine wishes, Solomon prepares for and supervises the construction of the long-awaited Jerusalem temple. All antecedent religious shrines, such as the tent of the meeting and the ark of the covenant, enjoy sacred but provisional status. The establishment of the temple under Solomon represents the culmination of disparate cultic traditions.

The value of the temple for all Israelites, repeatedly emphasized during the dedication ceremonies, is especially apparent in Solomon’s prayer (2 Chr. 6:19-39; cf. 1 Kgs. 8:28-49). In praying toward the temple in times of trouble, Israelites can find divine compassion, forgiveness, and restitution. In his reply to Solomon’s petitions, God affirms that should the people respond to calamity by humbling themselves, praying, seeking God, or returning to God, God will “hear from heaven, forgive their sins, and heal their land” (2 Chr. 7:14). The Chronicler’s interest in the temple’s national importance is not limited to his record of the United Monarchy. When later monarchs, such as Rehoboam (2 Chr. 12:1-12), Abijah (13:2-18), Asa (14:9-15[MT 8-14]), Jehoshaphat (18:28-34; 20:5-30), Hezekiah (30:13-21; 32:16-26), and Manasseh (33:10-13), respond to adversity according to Solomon’s petitions, God intervenes and restores them. Conversely, when either king or people neglect the temple, Israel suffers.

In Chronicles the national solidarity that characterizes Solomon’s accession and temple dedication continues throughout his reign (cf. 1 Kgs. 11). There is no hint of tension between northern tribes and southern tribes until the division. This idyllic picture of inter-tribal harmony has been upheld as a sign of the breadth of the Chronicler’s vision, but this vision also has an edge. Because the Chronicler’s portrayal of the united kingdom is so uniformly positive, it effectively impugns any person or group who would violate it. Having portrayed the establishment of Israel’s normative political and cultic institutions in the time of David and Solomon, the Chronicler never reneges on their pertinence to all Israelites.

Following the death of Solomon and the accession of his son Rehoboam, the 10 northern tribes secede from southern rule (1 Kgs. 12:1-20; 2 Chr. 11:1-17). Whereas the author of Kings follows the course of both northern and southern kingdoms, the Chronicler concentrates upon the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Levi, who make up the kingdom of Judah (2 Chr. 11). Largely blaming mostly Jeroboam and his entourage for the division, the Chronicler sees both the political and the cultic separation of Israel as an affront against God (2 Chr. 13:4-12). Unlike the Deuteronomist (1 Kgs. 11:11-13, 29-38; 14:9), the Chronicler views the Davidic promises as permanently valid for all 12 Israelite tribes. Hence, the Chronicler passes over the independent history of the separatist kingdom Jeroboam founded. Nevertheless, the author shows a sustained interest in (northern) Israelite history by recording virtually every incident between north and south mentioned in Kings, as well as a number of other contacts. The Chronicler’s coverage of the dual monarchies is, therefore, broadly consistent with the pattern he established in the genealogies. Israel continues to encompass all 12 tribes, but Judah, Benjamin, and Levi perpetuate the normative institutions established during the United Monarchy.

The Judahite monarchy is characterized by both achievements and failures. The writer consistently documents the achievements of Judah’s best kings — Abijah (2 Chr. 13), Asa (chs. 14–15), Jehoshaphat (chs. 17; 19), Hezekiah (chs. 29–31), and Josiah (ch. 34) — instituting reforms, reuniting the people, and recovering lost territories. Major regressions occur in the reigns of Ahaz (2 Chr. 28) and Manasseh (33:1-9). Yet, consistent with the Chronicler’s understanding of divine mercy, Manasseh repents and enjoys a significant recovery (33:10-19).

During the Judahite monarchy prophets play a major role in society. Whereas the Deuteronomist portrays very few active prophets in the southern kingdom until after the fall of the northern kingdom (2 Kgs. 17), the Chronicler portrays many. In Chronicles, prophecy represents an independent institution that checks royal and popular regression. Even some of Judah’s better kings, such as Jehoshaphat, succumb to military, commercial, and cultic compromise (2 Chr. 18:1–19:3; 20:35-37). As a divinely ordained institution, prophets limit the excess and abuse of power, sanctioning wars (20:14-17) or refusing to do so (18:4-27), praising humility (12:5-8) or lambasting arrogance (16:7-10), encouraging reforms (15:1-7) or assailing idolatry (25:15-16). Trust in God is even equated with trust in his prophets (20:20). In commentary on the defeat and exile of Judah, the author states that although Yahweh sent a steady supply of prophets to stir the people and priestly leaders to reform, their warnings went unheeded (36:14-16).

Both Kings and Chronicles end with the Babylonian Exile, but the ending of Chronicles offers a clearer hope for the future. In the final verses of his work, the Chronicler presents the decree of Cyrus commending the return of the Babylonian deportees to Judah (2 Chr. 36:22-23). In this manner, Chronicles contains and relativizes the tremendous tragedy of the Babylonian deportations. As the beginning of Chronicles introduces the people of Israel and charts their emergence in the land, the ending anticipates their return.

Bibliography. S. Japhet, I and II Chronicles. OTL (Louisville, 1993); H. G. M. Williamson, 1 and 2 Chronicles. NCBC (Grand Rapids, 1982); Israel in the Book of Chronicles (Cambridge, 1977).

Gary N. Knoppers

Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (2000)