Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

ARCHITECTURE

Iron Age storehouse with two rows of monolithic pillars flanking the center aisle; Omride dynasty
(ca. 875 b.c.e.), Hazor (W. S. LaSor)

Artist’s reconstruction of the Israelite “four-room house” (Giselle S. Hasel)

Architecture, as the art or science of building, addresses the physical, ideological, social, and creative needs of humanity through the design of functional structures. Over the centuries of human existence, mankind has claimed the right to express, in personal and monumental venues, these needs within the limits of available materials. Textual and archaeological records in the ancient Near East attest to the monuments left through the course of millennia in the “cradle of civilization.”

Materials and Construction

The building materials available in Palestine were limited to the natural occurrence of local limestone and basalt, woods, and earth used in forming mudbrick. Biblical references to the use of these materials are abundant and accurately reflect local construction techniques.

Quarried limestone was the most common building material, especially in the coastal regions and central hill country, while basalt was used in the north, particularly in the Jordan Valley and the Galilee. Large rough and unhewn stones were used as foundation and walls, with chinking stones placed in cracks, and uneven areas before the walls were covered in mud or plaster. It was not until the Late Bronze Age that ashlar masonry was introduced for fine building, as is evident at several of the palaces and temples at Hazor and the LB gate at Megiddo. These orthostats in northern Palestine reflect a strong Anatolian influence. During later periods ashlar masonry was further developed and used throughout Palestine, especially during the period of the Israelite monarchy and later (1 Kgs. 5:18). Stone continued to be a major construction material through Hellenistic and Roman times.

Timber was employed extensively (Josh. 17:15, 18) in the construction of roofing beams (1 Kgs. 6:9), wall reinforcement (6:36; Ezra 5:8; 6:4) and for interior columns made of wood (1 Kgs. 7:2) or stone. Local woods used in construction included the date palm, juniper, oak, olive, pine, poplar, and walnut. The well-known cedar of Lebanon was imported from the north and shipped to Palestine and Egypt, where it was prized as one of the finest lumbers (2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Kgs. 5:8-9; 7:2).

Sun-baked mudbrick was used throughout the Near East as a versatile material in constructing fortifications, domestic, cultic, and administrative buildings. It was once thought that the arch was introduced in the Persian period, but two arched gates made of mudbrick have been found at Tell Dan and Ashkelon dating to MB. The mudbrick was easily molded in forms and sun-baked, sometimes adding straw as a temper that would accelerate drying and coherence. The mudbrick was laid and mortared with mud or bitumen (Gen. 11:3). The walls were then finished with either a mud or plaster coat on the surface. Maintenance would be required on a regular basis to prevent decay. The combined use of these materials in different buildings and architectural design varied throughout the history of ancient Palestine.

General Survey

Palestine, as a land bridge between the empires of Egypt, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia, was at the crossroads of ancient civilizations. From the beginning of urbanization in EB II-III (3000-2400 b.c.) and especially during MB II-III (1850-1550) the city-states of Palestine reflected the strong influences of Syria and Mesopotamia, a factor that continued into LB accompanied by the increasing impact of Egypt on architecture and material culture. With the collapse of Bronze Age civilization over an extended period from about 1250 to 1150, architectural changes began to take hold as several ethnic groups such as the Israelites and Philistines began to extend their settlement. Throughout the following centuries powerful forces from Assyria, Persia, Greece, and Rome would play an interactive role with indigenous cultures in architectural development.

Fortifications. The construction of fortifications provided protection against marauding animals and attacking military forces. The development of the fortified city indicated permanent settlement as a population became attached to a certain region and felt that its land must be defended. Defensive structures included ramparts and glacis, walls, and gates.

The rampart and glacis were introduced during EB II and continue during urban periods until they appear again at Iron Age sites. The rampart was a built-up mound of earth that surrounded the city and served as the base for massive city walls. Some thought that it was constructed as a defense against the battering ram, but it also prevented erosion and the sapping of city walls. The glacis was the outer facing of the rampart or mound (tell) made of beaten earth, lime plaster, brick, or stone. It appears at the Iron II sites of Beer-sheba, Lachish, Tel Malḥata (Tell el-Milḥ), Tell en-Naṣbeh, and Gezer.

The construction of the Iron Age city wall took on several forms. In Iron I few fortified cities other than the Philistine pentapolis existed along the southern coastal plain. Excavations at Ashkelon, Tel Miqne-Ekron, and Ashdod revealed major mudbrick walls and towers dating to the 12th and 11th centuries. Other cities were surrounded by a simple belt of houses, the outer walls serving for defense. Examples of this defensive system up to the United Monarchy appear at Beth-shemesh, Gezer, Megiddo, Tell en-Naṣbeh, and Lachish. During and after the Monarchy, when administration became centralized, fortifications were further developed. During the 10th through 8th centuries casemate walls were constructed at Hazor, Tell Beit Mirsim, Samaria, and ʿEn Gev. These casemate walls consisted of two parallel walls with the space between them divided by partition walls into small rooms that either functioned for storage or were filled with earth for reinforcement and support of upper courses. The offset-inset wall is found at Gezer and Megiddo, and massive walls built of stone are also evident at Tell en-Naṣbeh, Hazor, Tel Batash-Timnah, Jerusalem, and Tel Malḥata.

Life at the city gate figured in important institutions in ancient Palestine. The “square at the gate of the city” (2 Chr. 32:6) was an area for drawing up agreements before witnesses, a seat for the elders, prophets, and judges of the city. At the gates of Megiddo (stratum V-A) and Dan possible “high places” were found (2 Kgs. 23:8) that correspond to the biblical descriptions.

The Iron Age gate developed in a succinct manner. During the 10th century the three-entry gateway of the Late Bronze Age was expanded to four entries with six chambers. It was flanked on either side with massive towers about two stories high, which were open and accessible during the Iron Age. This four-entry gateway has been attributed to Solomon, who is said to have rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem, Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer (1 Kgs. 9:15), the latter cities revealing gates of this design together with fine ashlar masonry. Although there is discussion concerning the dating of these gates to Solomon, the ashlar masonry specifically mentioned in connection with his building activities (1 Kgs. 5:15-17[MT 29-31]; 7:9-10) is cited in its favor.

During the 9th century gates with three entries became prominent at sites like Tell en-Naṣbeh, Beersheba, Megiddo, and Tel Dan/Tell el-Qadi. Other simple two-entry gates provided an essential framework at several Iron II sites.

Domestic Buildings. A new type of house was introduced at the beginning of the Iron Age. Due to its initial discovery in the hill country, the three- and four-room house was often associated ethnically with the Israelites. The building was typically designed in an oblong, rectangular shape. The broad room, the largest space, was at the back with the three front rooms built at right angles to the broad room. A row of pillars divided the front rooms creating a type of courtyard. The building may also have had a second story at least over part of the ground floor. The size of the four-room house seems to indicate that it was occupied by nuclear families.

The origin of the four-room house is thought by some to be a new innovation of the Iron Age, while others point to LB predecessors. The earliest true four-room house is found at sites such as Giloh (late 13th century), Tel Masos, and ʿIzbet Òarṭah. It became most common during the 12th century throughout the central hill country. Iron II administrative cities like Megiddo, Lachish, Hazor, and Tell en-Naṣbeh demonstrate careful architectural planning and a proliferation of four-room houses in domestic areas. Thus this form became increasingly popular during the Iron Age in settlements and cities occupied by Israelites and Philistines (e.g., Tell Qasile, Tel Serʿ/Tell esh-Shariʿa).

Cultic Buildings. Known only from its elaborate biblical description (1 Kgs. 6; 2 Chr. 3:1-10; Ezek. 40–43), the temple of Solomon is perhaps the best- known cultic building. It was a rectangular, long-room building with an entrance on its eastern side. Its exterior dimensions were ca. 25 × 20 m. (82 × 65 ft.), its wall ca. 2.5–6 m. (8–20 ft.) thick. Two ornamental pillars framed the entrance. The interior was divided into two compartments, the holy and the most holy. The interior floors were laid with pine, while the walls and roof were lined with cedar. The most holy place was also overlaid with gold through the aid of Phoenician craftsmen. The temple served the Israelite community until its destruction by the Babylonians in 586.

Other cultic buildings in Iron II are known from Tell Dan, Arad, and Tel Miqne-Ekron. A large podium found at Tel Dan was interpreted as a cultic high place (bāmâ). Its several phases span the 10th through early 9th centuries. The outline of the perfectly square structure is built of fine ashlar masonry with an earth and basalt fill. Within its boundaries foundation walls seemed to have supported a massive superstructure.

At Arad a series of rooms within a fortress were identified as a sanctuary because of the tripartite structure, large sacrificial altar, and smaller altars within the inner chambers. Two shallow bowls were found inscribed with an abbreviated formula that might be interpreted as “sanctified for priests.”

A massive Assyrian temple has been uncovered at Tel Miqne-Ekron dating to the 7th century. A dedicatory inscription mentions that Padi son of Achsi dedicated the temple to a goddess and adds considerable light to cultic practices during this period.

Administrative Buildings. Administrative buildings can be classified under palaces or large patrician houses and pillared buildings during the Late Bronze through Iron Ages.

The “governor’s” residency was a development of the terminal phase of the Late Bronze Age. This type of building is said to have strong Egyptian and Syrian influences. These were square buildings made of mudbrick walls, with a central courtyard surrounded by smaller rooms. It is thought that they served local governors in ruling over Palestine in the south and along the major highways leading north. Most of these residences at such sites as Beth-shean (Tell el-Huṣn), Pella, Tell Jemmeh, Tell el-µesi, Tell es-Saʿidiyeh, Tel Seraʿ/Tell esh-Shariʿa, and Tell el-Farʿah (South) were destroyed during the LB/Iron Age transition (ca. 1200) but others survived or were built in Iron I (Tel Masos).

The biblical narratives provide vivid descriptions of David’s and Solomon’s palaces (2 Sam. 5:11; 7:7; 1 Chr. 17:1; 2 Chr. 2:3[2]; 1 Kgs. 7:1-12). Like the temple, they were erected through the skills of Phoenician craftsmen, but archaeological excavations have yet to locate them. Other palaces found at sites like Megiddo (Buildings 1723 and 6000) and Gezer (“Palace 10,000”) indicate construction in the Syrian bit ilani tradition. These palaces were designed as two elongated halls with the longitudinal axis parallel to the facade. The first hall was a portico with a stairway leading up to the entrance. Another staircase within led to a second story. The long inner hall was the throne room. Other palaces at Ramat Raḥel, Lachish, Hazor, and Samaria indicate additional architectural developments which differed from earlier Canaanite and later Assyrian influences. Biblical references to the use of cedar beams in construction (1 Kgs. 6:36; 7:12) are supported by archaeological evidence at these sites, where gaps are found between ashlar courses. Fragments of wall paintings were found at Ramat Raḥel.

Numerous sites experienced Assyrian influence during the 8th and 7th centuries as the Assyrian Empire expanded and administrative centers were established in Palestine. Assyrian “open-court buildings” are found at Hazor (Building 3002), Megiddo (Buildings 1052, 1369, and 1853), Gezer, Tell Jemmeh/Tel Reʿim, Tel Serʿ/Tell esh-Shariʿa, and Buseirah.

Pillared buildings are another important architectural feature of the Iron Age. The rectangular structures, divided by pillars into three narrow halls, are thought to have served a public function at Hazor, Tell Abu Hawam, Megiddo, Tell Qasile, Tell el-µesi, Beer-sheba, Tel Malḥata, and Tell Masos. The function of these buildings as stables, storehouses, barracks, or marketplaces remains an issue of debate.

Later Developments. Influences from the Hellenistic and Roman cultures were increasingly felt throughout the region. The Romans established no fewer than 30 cities in Palestine; one of the most impressive building programs was initiated by Herod the Great (37-4 b.c.). Cities such as Caesarea Maritima, the rebuilding of Jerusalem, Beth-shean, Pella, and Banias (Caesarea Philippi) indicate careful planning for aqueducts, cisterns, temples, amphitheaters, hippodromes, bathhouses, and palaces placed in conjunctive relationship to fountains and statues, thus creating a magnificent atmosphere of power and culture. Despite this impressive show, the construction of synagogues, the temple in Jerusalem, and other edifices attest to the persistence and indomitable nature of the social, ideological, and creative elements still inherent in the local cultures and their ancient heritage.

See also House; Temple.

Bibliography. A. Biran, ed., Temples and High Places in Biblical Times (Jerusalem, 1981); W. G. Dever, “Palaces and Temples in Canaan and Ancient Israel,” CANE, 1:605-14; V. Fritz, The City in Ancient Israel (Sheffield, 1995); A. Kempinski and R. Reich, eds., The Architecture of Ancient Israel (Jerusalem, 1992); G. Leick, A Dictionary of Ancient Near Eastern Architecture (New York, 1988); Y. Shiloh, “The Casemate Wall, the Four-Room House, and Early Planning in the Israelite City,” BASOR 268 (1987): 3-15; L. E. Stager, “The Archaeology of the Family in Ancient Israel,” BASOR 260 (1985): 1-35.

Michael G. Hasel