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EXODUS, BOOK OF

The second book in the OT and one of five books that make up the Torah or Pentateuch. The title “Exodus” is from the Greek or LXX translation of the Hebrew text (MT) and emphasizes the event of Israel leaving Egypt. In Hebrew the title of the book is Šĕmôṯ, from the opening words, “And these are the names.” This emphasizes the placement of the Israelites in Egypt rather than their leaving it; the “names” are the sons of Jacob, who are now described as the children of Israel.

Canonical Context

The Hebrew title interrelates the book of Exodus with the first book of the Bible, since at the close of Genesis Jacob is described as moving to Egypt with his 11 sons in order to live with his twelfth son, Joseph, who was previously sold as a slave by his brothers. The description of the sons of Jacob as the children of Israel in the opening verse of Exodus indicates a transition from the ancestral family stories in Genesis to an account of the origins of Israel as a nation.

The opening chapters of Exodus underscore how the family of Jacob has evolved into a great nation, whose size now threatens Pharaoh, prompting oppression (Exod. 1–2). The oppression of Israel creates conflict with the divine promise to the ancestors in Genesis that their descendants would be blessed by God with many offspring and their own land (Gen. 12:1-3).

Content

Exodus is an account of God’s initial faithfulness to the ancestral promise. Exod. 3–15 describes God’s response to the oppression of Pharaoh in calling Moses to deliver Israel from Egyptian slavery. Exod. 16–18 describes Israel’s initial journey through the wilderness to the mountain home of God. The book ends with an account of Israel’s encounter with God at Mt. Sinai, where they enter into a covenant relationship with God (chs. 19, 24) and receive the divine revelation of law (chs. 20, 21-23), as well as instructions for the cultic system of the tabernacle (chs. 25–31, 35–40). In the midst of the revelation of law and sanctuary Israel breaks their newly formed covenant with God by worshipping the golden calf (ch. 32), which prompts covenant renewal (ch. 34). The revelation of the tabernacle cult continues beyond the book of Exodus through Leviticus and Num. 1–10, before Israel leaves Mt. Sinai and continues their journey through the wilderness toward the Promised Land of Canaan.

Theology and History of Composition

Biblical writers place the oppression of Israel in Egypt during the reign of Rameses II (ca. 1304-1237 b.c.e.). The lack of extrabiblical material along with the cultic and theological nature of the literature in Exodus makes the historical reconstruction of Israel’s slavery in Egypt difficult. Israel is mentioned by name in one Egyptian inscription, the Merneptah Stela (ca. 1230), where they appear to be a group living in Canaan. Whatever the exact historical details may have been, the book of Exodus consistently describes salvation as divine liberation from Egyptian oppression. Essential to the event of liberation is also Israel’s encounter with God in the desert. The history of composition of the book of Exodus witnesses to Israel’s changing reflection on the meaning of these events.

Exodus is an anthology of liturgy and literature from nearly all periods of Israel’s history. Three actions of God form the central core of Exodus: (1) Divine deliverance of Israel from Egyptian oppression; (2) Divine revelation to Israel at the mountain of God in the desert; and (3) Divine indwelling with Israel through the construction of a cult site. The book of Exodus contains some of the earliest traditions of Israel on each of these topics. (1) The Song of the Sea (15:1-18, 21) is an early poetic account of divine deliverance of Israel at the sea. In this hymn God is described as drowning Pharaoh and his army in the storm-tossed sea. (2) Exod. 19:16-19 reflects early accounts of divine revelation to Israel at God’s mountain home. Other early accounts of God’s mountain home in the desert include such poetry as Judg. 5:5; Ps. 68:8, 17[MT 9, 18]; Deut. 33:2. Finally, (3) Exod. 33:1-6 describes the indwelling of God with Israel as taking place in a movable desert shrine, the tent of meeting, which is located outside of the Israelite camp. These traditions most likely existed independently of each other at an early stage in Israel’s worship life.

The most significant development in the compositional history of Exodus occurs when the three actions of God as savior, revealer, and indweller are interrelated into one story of national origin and salvation history. The earliest transformation of independent liturgies into an account of salvation history takes place around the character of Moses. The hymns of deliverance in 15:1-18, 21 anchor an extended narrative that includes the birth and commission of Moses, his conflict with Pharaoh through a series of plagues, which leads to the death of the Egyptian firstborn, Israel’s expulsion from Egypt, and finally the confrontation at the sea. The revelation of God at the desert mountain is connected to the exodus with a wilderness journey in which Moses leads Israel. The revelation itself is fashioned into a covenant ceremony, in which the presence of God with Israel is transferred into laws that are mediated through Moses, the law-giver.

This account of salvation history has been traditionally described as the Yahwist history, written in the 10th century during the period of the United Monarchy, when David and Solomon fashioned an empire out of the 12 tribes. More recently scholars have questioned such an early date for the writing of history in ancient Israel, favoring instead a late monarchy or even an exilic date.

Priestly writers present another interpretation of God as deliverer, revealer, and indweller. In their account of salvation history, Moses delivers Israel with the aid of his brother Aaron, the priest, who confronts Egyptian magicians with the power of Israel’s God. The event of salvation incorporates imagery of a new creation. God does not simply destroy Pharaoh in the sea, but actually splits the sea in half. Such action is reminiscent of creation in the ancient Near Eastern world. As a result, for Priestly writers, salvation inaugurates a new creation. As a consequence, Israel’s wilderness journey to the desert home of God becomes an exploration into a new and emerging world, in which sabbath reappears for the first time since the original creation in Gen. 1. The revelation of God at Mt. Sinai focuses on the details of the tabernacle sanctuary, with its sacrificial system and official priesthood. The revelation and construction of the tabernacle allow God to leave his mountain home and dwell in the midst of the Israelite camp as they journey on to the Promised Land.

The Priestly account of salvation history has been traditionally interpreted as a separate and independent story from the Yahwist history, and written in the exilic period. In this documentary hypothesis the two accounts were only later merged by editors. More recently scholars have questioned whether the Priestly account was ever an independent story. Some favor an interpretation of Priestly literature as an addition to the Yahwist history that is intended to reinterpret it to fit a Priestly theology. Other scholars have argued that the legal portions of the Priestly history are preexilic in origin and thus older than has traditionally been thought.

Continuing Significance

The compositional history of Exodus reflects changes in ancient Israelite society, worship, and theological reflection. As a consequence, the present form of the book contains a number of interpretations of the same event or theme. For example, salvation is both a liberation and a new creation. Revelation is focused on covenant, law (torah), and cult. God dwells with Israel both in the tent of meeting outside of the camp and in the tabernacle in the middle of the camp.

Yet throughout the many changes in the story line of Israel’s salvation from Egypt and journey to God in the wilderness, the three themes of God as savior, revealer, and indweller provide points of continuity. These themes become the organizing points for worship practice in ancient Israel that continue to influence both Jewish and Christian traditions. Circumcision (4:24-26), Passover and recollection of the slaughter of the firstborn (12:21-36, 43-49), unleavened bread or Maṣṣôṯ (12:37-39; 13:3-10), the consecration of the firstborn and the giving of firstfruits (13:1-2, 11-16) are cultic means for participating in the power of God as savior. Sabbath (ch. 16), the formation of covenant communities (chs. 19–24), called leaders on the model of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, the reading of sacred Scripture (20:1-17; 24:3-8), eating with God (24:9-11), and the establishment of sacred places (chs. 35–40) continue to be important ways in which God is revealed and dwells with the people of God.

Bibliography. B. S. Childs, The Book of Exodus. OTL (Philadelphia, 1974); F. M. Cross, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic (Cambridge, Mass., 1973); T. B. Dozeman, God at War: Power in the Exodus Tradition (New York, 1996); God on the Mountain: A Study of Redaction, Theology and Canon in Exodus 19–24. SBLMS 37 (Atlanta, 1989); S. E. Loewenstamm, The Evolution of the Exodus Tradition (Jerusalem, 1992); J. Van Seters, The Life of Moses: The Yahwist as Historian in Exodus-Numbers (Louisville, 1994).

Thomas B. Dozeman

Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

EXODUS, BOOK OF

Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (2000)