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ASSYRIA

Human-headed, winged bull, one of two which flanked the principal entrance to the throne
room of the palace of Sargon II at Dur-Sharrukin/Khorsabad (721-705 b.c.e.)
(Photo by Jean M. Grant; courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago)

Tiglath-pileser III (747-727 b.c.e.) standing in his war chariot with a driver and “third man” or “captain” who holds an umbrella. Gypsum relief from palace at Nimrud (Copyright British Museum)

A political and geographic designation for a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization. The geographical extent of the political entity varied due to the political status of Assyria in any period. Located in what is now northern Iraq, Assyria is commonly referred to as the land along the “middle Tigris.”

The early history of Assyria is tied into the political configurations of Babylonia until the rise of Assur-uballit I (reigned 1365-1330 b.c.e.). The Middle Assyrian (1274-1077) and Neo-Assyrian periods (911-612) are sometimes referred to as “empires.” Since they use different criteria (language, politics, art historical considerations), not all scholars agree on the exact dates of the Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods.

The first historical references to Assyria date to the Sargonic period (2334-2193). Assyria at this time was a series of autonomous cities. A bronze mask of King Sargon of Akkad (reigned 2334-2279) discovered in the Ishtar temple of Nineveh testifies to the Sargonic presence in Assyria. Nineveh is linked to Maništusu (reigned 2269-2255), Sargon’s grandson, through an inscription of Šamši-adad (reigned 1813-1781) claiming that he restored a temple in Nineveh originally built by Maništusu. A copper spear-head belonging to Maništusu describes the ruler of Assur as the servant of Maništusu.

In the following Ur III period the various cities of Assyria were treated differently by the Ur III administration. For example, on a stone plaque discovered in Assur Zarriqum claims to be the governor of Assur and servant of the Ur III king Amar-sin (reigned 2046-2038). While Assur was a peripheral state governed by a royal appointee, economic texts from Nineveh show it to be a vassal state.

The Old Assyrian period is known from texts discovered at the site of Karum Kanesh (Kultepe) in Turkey, a town inhabited by a colony of Assyrian merchants who conducted business in Anatolia. The tablets attest to trade in tin (needed for bronze) and textiles.

Šamši-adad I is the best-known ruler of the Old Assyrian period. He was one of the Semitic-speaking Amorites who entered Mesopotamia, dominating the political situation in the first half of the 2nd millennium. He captured the city of Ekallatum and then took control of Assur. Šamši-adad I claims descent from nomads, but portrayed himself as a legitimate ruler of Assur, carrying out construction in that city. More information about him comes from an archive at Mari, where Šamši-adad I established his son Yasmaḫ-adad on the throne. Much of the correspondence between father and son has been excavated. The reign of Šamši-adad I was one of relative stability and prosperity. Upon his death Hammurabi of Babylon conquered most of the areas formerly controlled by Šamši-adad.

Unity amongst the city-states of Assyria collapsed, and the following period is often called a “dark age” in Assyria because of the paucity of evidence. The Assyrian King List provides names of rulers only of the city of Assur. Many of the cities which make up “Assyria” fell under the control of the kingdom of Mitanni.

Assur-uballit I (reigned 1363-1328) marks the rise to power of the political entity of Assyria. He was the first to call himself “King of Assyria.” Assur-uballit I addresses the Egyptian king as an equal in two letters from Amarna, indicating his status as a major figure in the international scene. His daughter was married to the king of Babylon, and his grandson eventually inherited the Babylonian throne. When the grandson was killed during a rebellion, Assur-uballit I deposed the usurper and placed his own choice on the throne.

The following three kings maintained Assyria’s status as an international power. During the reigns of Enlil-nirari, Arik-den-ilu, and Adad-nirari Assyria’s boundaries expanded, though they lost control of Babylonia. Expansion brought wealth into Assyria, laying the groundwork for the Middle Assyrian “Empire.” Shalmaneser I (reigned 1274-1245) continued to campaign, and claims defeat of the Hittites, Arameans, and the army of Mitanni.

Tukulti-ninurta I (reigned 1244-1208) continued to fight the Hittites, and was the first to carry out mass deportations. He came into conflict with Babylon, plundered the city, tore down its walls, and brought the statue of its god Marduk to Assyria. For this deed he was the only Assyrian to have a historical epic composed in his honor. However, in other circles the destruction of Babylon was considered an offense to the gods, and Tukulti-ninurta I was assassinated in his palace in the new city he founded across the river from Assur.

Following Tukulti-ninurta I’s assassination Assyria fell into a decline (1132-1076) coinciding with the movements and destructions ending the Late Bronze Age in the eastern Mediterranean and with the collapse of Kassite Babylonia. Assyria did not suffer as severely as the surrounding areas, so under Assur-reš-iši I (reigned 1133-1116) Assyria again became powerful. Assur-reš-iši I restored peace and prosperity to the region by recapturing and strengthening borders and rebuilding fortresses. With the kingdom secure Tiglath-pileser I (reigned 1114-1076) expanded Assyria. Conflict with Babylonia did not result in much gain, but Tiglath-pileser I’s success in battle against the Mushku and the Arameans brought wealth to Assyria, ushering in a period of prosperity. As a result there were significant building operations in many Assyrian cities. Two sets of laws were compiled at this time, one a collection of palace edicts of various kings and the other a collection of laws concerned with the status (which was particularly poor at this time) of women in Assyria.

Following the death of Tiglath-pileser I, Assyria entered a period of decline, probably as a result of inadequate administration over the newly conquered lands. Assur-dan II (reigned 934-912) restored the internal stability of Assyria and was the first to campaign abroad since Tiglath-pileser I. Adad-nirari II (reigned 911-891) continued the work of his father, conducting even more extensive military expeditions. The Arameans were his chief concern, and after continued campaigning Adad-nirari could finally undertake a “show of strength” offense emulated by his son and successor Tukulti-ninurta II (reigned 890-884). He was also the first to establish storage depots, the beginning of Assyria’s provincial system.

Assurnasirpal II (reigned 883-859), the son of Tukulti-ninurta I, was one of the most famous Assyrian kings. He continued to campaign, but on a scale even greater than his predecessors. He was the first to come into contact with the Aramean and Phoenician cities of the west and claims to have reached the Mediterranean. Assurnasirpal II established regular tribute for the conquered territories. This great wealth was used to build a new city Calah (Nimrud), which served as the capital of Assyria for the following reign. The palace reliefs depict campaigns and other exploits and became a hallmark of the Neo-Assyrian period. Assurnasirpal II used gory terminology, apparently revelling in cruelty, to describe his exploits.

Shalmaneser III (reigned 858-824) inherited the throne and continued to rule from Calah. He campaigned yearly for 31 years, continuing to expand the borders of Assyria. In the west he met coalitions of city-states including Hadadezer of Damascus and Ahab of Israel, culminating in the battle of Qarqar. Later in his reign “Jehu, son of Omri,” who supplanted the Omride dynasty in Israel, paid tribute, a scene depicted on Shalmaneser III’s famous Black Obelisk. He also helped the king of Babylon, Marduk-zakir-šumi, regain the throne from his brother Marduk-bel-usate. Shalmaneser III’s turtanu (second-in-command) Dayan-assur led the last five military campaigns in his reign. Possibly as a result of the redistribution of power one of Shalmaneser’s sons led a rebellion with the support of such cities as Assur and Nineveh. Shalmaneser III died during that rebellion. His son Šamši-adad V (reigned 823-811) managed to win the throne, but Assyria now entered a period of decline, while her neighbor and enemy Urartu gained ascendancy.

Adad-nirari III (reigned 810-783) inherited a weakened kingdom. He campaigned primarily against Babylonia with marginal success. Better known is Adad-nirari III’s mother, Sammuramat, known in later traditions as Semiramis. She may have played a significant role in her son’s reign since he was young when he ascended the throne; this led to her legendary status in writings among the Arameans, Greeks, and Persians. The following king Shalmaneser IV (reigned 782-773) was so weak that his turtanu Šamši-ilu claimed victories over Urartu without mentioning the king’s name. Assur-dan III (reigned 772-755) and Assur-nirari V (reigned 754-745) did little while Urartu prospered.

Tiglath-pileser III (reigned 747-727), probably the younger brother of Adad-nirari III and not the designated heir to the throne, was the architect of the last great stage of Assyrian domination. He first chased Urartu out of Assyrian territory and then invaded Urartu itself. After his defeat of Arpad, many of the southern and western states brought voluntary submission and tribute. Tiglath-pileser III led his army through Syria and Phoenicia to southern Palestine, eventually capturing Gaza, where he created a trading center. After protracted problems with Babylonia he himself took the Babylonian throne under the name Pulu (biblical Pul, 2 Kgs. 15:19-20). He carried out a reorganization and improvement of the army and provincial administration using mass deportations as standard policy.

Little is known of Shalmaneser V (reigned 726-722) other than that he laid siege on Samaria after King Hoshea of Israel revolted. Sargon II (reigned 721-705) probably usurped the throne and began the Sargonid line that included the rest of the Assyrian kings. He claimed the capture, destruction, and deportation of Samaria’s citizens. His reign began with rebellions which he had to quell at home, and only then could he turn to the problem in Samaria. Sargon continued on to Gaza, where he defeated an Egyptian army and subdued Philistia. Sargon built a new capital NE of Nineveh at Khorsabad called Dur-šarrukin (“Sargon’s fortress”), which was abandoned almost as soon as it was inhabited.

Sennacherib (704-681) was raised in the “house of succession” and thus was prepared to follow his father Sargon II. Most of his time was engaged with revolts in the west and Babylonia. His annals record his campaigns to fight the rebellious towns of Sidon, Ashkelon, and Judah and the inhabitants of Ekron, who went so far as to hand their king Padi over to Hezekiah of Jerusalem. Sennacherib’s destruction of Lachish is depicted on wall reliefs decorating his palace. While he waged war in the area, Sennacherib never captured Jerusalem. At the end of this campaign Sennacherib planned though never implemented an invasion of Egypt. He built a new palace in Nineveh, reinvigorating the ancient city. Babylonia regularly rebelled, eventually leading Sennacherib to destroy Babylon. He was later murdered by his sons.

Esarhaddon (reigned 680-669) came to the throne amidst the violence of his father’s murder. The troublesome beginning greatly affected Esarhaddon, who reversed his father’s Babylonian policy and sought appeasement, in large part through a rebuilding campaign. Despite the appearance that he was constantly ill and in fear of the gods, Esarhaddon conquered as far as the capital of Memphis in Egypt. It was on a campaign to quell rebellion in Egypt that he died. His mother Naqiʾa exercised more authority than any previous woman, at times writing royal inscriptions and also building a palace at Nineveh. Her power continued into the reign of her grandson Assurbanipal.

Because of the difficulties Esarhaddon faced gaining the throne, he took steps in his lifetime to secure a smooth transition. He placed his son Assurbanipal (reigned 668-627) on the throne of Assyria and his son Šamaš-šum-ukin on the throne of Babylonia, and made all the vassals in the empire swear an oath of loyalty to both. The transition worked smoothly. Assurbanipal gathered 22 kings and began his invasion of Egypt. So far from Assyria, Assurbanipal had to appoint Egyptians to rule in his stead. Later rebellions demanded his return, at which time Assurbanipal destroyed Thebes. When Egypt revolted a third time Assurbanipal was so busy with problems in Elam that he could not regain Egypt. After 17 years Assurbanipal’s brother Šamaš-šum-ukin tired of his secondary status in Babylonia and revolted. Assurbanipal responded by marching against his brother. After three years of perpetual battle, Šamaš-šum-ukin set fire to his palace and died in the flames. Assurbanipal then took the throne of Babylon under the name Kandalanu.

There is no record of the last 12 years of Assurbanipal’s reign. It appears that civil strife and military setbacks weakened Assyria to a point from which it could not recover. A fight for the throne following Assurbanipal’s death further weakened Assyria, so that in 614 the city of Assur was destroyed by the Medes. By 612 Nineveh, Nimrud, and Assur were all in ruins. A small force held out in Haran until 609, at which point the Neo-Babylonian “Empire” encompassed all the land formerly under Neo-Assyrian control.

Bibliography. A. L. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia, 2nd ed. (Chicago, 1977); G. Roux, Ancient Iraq, 3rd ed. (Baltimore, 1992); H. W. F. Saggs, The Might That Was Assyria (1984; repr. New York, 1991).

Tammi J. Schneider

Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

ASSYRIA

Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (2000)