Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

LITERATURE, NEW TESTAMENT AS

The Prodigal Son amid the Swine, engraving by Albrecht Dürer (ca. 1496) (Courtesy British Museum)

To read the NT as literature is to read the Bible in ways that literature in general is read. A literary reading does not diminish the understanding of Scripture, but rather enhances the meaning that is in the text. The NT is read on its own terms, which means that its figures of speech, formal organization, and other literary aspects are analyzed.

The literature of the NT may be divided into sayings, narratives, speeches, and letters. The sayings of Jesus are found in the Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John. Narratives are stories that have characters and plot and are found in the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and Revelation. Speeches are found in Acts. The letters are conventional forms of communication in the early Church and include the letters of Paul and other NT writers.

Sayings of Jesus

The sayings of Jesus may be short, aphoristic sayings as in Matthew’s Sermon on the Mount or long discourses as in the Gospel of John; but always they are artistic formulations that require a close reading on the part of the interpreter. An antithetical saying is one that is in parallelism (i.e, similar order and structure) and has a contrast or opposition in the meaning of contiguous phrases or clauses. Jesus’ statement to the crowd and disciples in Mark 8:35 (cf. Matt. 16:25; Luke 9:24) is an example. Here the antithesis is a reversal of the common way of thinking about saving or losing one’s life: the way to save one’s life is to lose it. This example also happens to be a chiastic pattern. A chiasmus or chiasm, a cross-over pattern that resembles the Greek letter chi (X), reverses the elements that are parallel in syntax as follows: A : B :: B’ : A’. In Mark 8:35 the terms “save” and “lose” form the chiasm save : lose :: lose : save. Another example is Jesus’ saying of the first and the last (Matt. 19:30; cf. Mark 10:31). Antithetical chiasms turn upside down normal ways of thinking and common perceptions of our world. Not only does the content of the saying reverse natural ways of thinking, but also the form of the saying turns on its head the usual manner of thinking.

Jesus so consistently used metaphors and similes that any study of the Gospels as literature must pay close attention to these figures of speech. A simile compares two distinctly different things by the use of “like” or “as.” In Luke 17:6 Jesus compares faith to a mustard seed. In a metaphor an implied analogy is made between one object and another that ascribes one or more qualities of the second object to the first. A metaphor has a vehicle (the metaphorical term itself) and a tenor (the subject that the metaphor is applied to). Matt. 7:6 illustrates not only the importance of identifying the vehicle and tenor, but also the difficulty at times in making the correct identification. There are several vehicles in this example: holy things, dogs, pearls, swine. But what is the tenor, the subject to which these metaphorical terms are applied? Is it the gospel? Certain esoteric teachings and practices? Fine wisdom? And whom do the dogs and swine represent? Unbelievers? The Jewish leaders? The hard-hearted and blind? Any interpretation of this difficult verse requires that an interpreter correctly identify the tenor or tenors.

Jesus’ fondness of hyperbole also requires close attention. Hyperbole is a bold overstatement or extravagant exaggeration. The hyperbolic language of Matt. 7:3-5 illustrates. The hyperbole of a log protruding from one’s eye is an arresting image that has a definite shock value: it forces the reader/hearer to see something that could not be seen without the use of hyperbolic language — namely, one’s censorious attitude.

The sayings of Jesus in the Gospel of John contain many double entendres or statements that are deliberately ambiguous and create misunderstandings. When Jesus says to Nicodemus that “without being born from above (Gk. ánōthen)” he cannot see the kingdom of God (John 3:3), Nicodemus misunderstands because the Greek term can mean either “again” or “from above.” Similarly, the Samaritan woman misunderstands “living water” (hýdōr zṓn) in John 4:10 and thinks that Jesus will provide a “flowing stream.”

An understanding of irony enriches the reading of the Gospels. Verbal irony occurs when the implicit meaning by a speaker differs sharply from the ostensible meaning expressed. Words are used in a double-edged way. When Jesus tells the Jewish leaders “Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up” (John 2:19), he is referring to his body, but the authorities understandably think he means the Jerusalem temple. John makes sure that the reader does not miss the irony by explaining Jesus’ meaning in 2:21. Dramatic irony occurs when the reader stands in a superior position to a character in a narrative and therefore knows information that a character lacks. Caiaphas’ statement concerning Jesus in John 11:50 is dramatic irony at its best. The high priest does not understand the extent to which this statement is true, although the reader does understand.

The parables of Jesus may be short similitudes that make a comparison between two distinctly different things or they may be longer, narrative parables with characters and plot. Similitudes are extended similes or metaphors that have a picture part (vehicle), a reality part (tenor), and a point of comparison between the two parts. The parable of the hidden treasure in Matt. 13:44 is an example of a similitude. The picture part is the treasure hidden in a field; the reality part is the kingdom of God; and the point of comparison is that just as the man sold all to purchase the field, one willingly sacrifices all to receive the kingdom. Other similitudes are the parables of the leaven (Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:20-21), the mustard seed (Matt. 13:31-32; Mark 4:30-32; Luke 13:18-19), the pearl (Matt. 13:45-46), the net (13:47-50), the seed growing secretly (Mark 4:26-29), the fig tree (Matt. 24:32-35; Mark 13:28-31; Luke 21:29-33), the lost sheep (15:4-7; Matt. 18:12-14), the lost coin (Luke 15:8-10), and the unprofitable servants (17:7-10).

Narrative parables are well-developed stories and should be analyzed as narrative literature with attention given to the characters, rhetoric, setting, point of view, plot, and theme (see below). Examples of narrative parables are the parables of the ten virgins (Matt. 25:1-13), the talents (25:14-30; Luke 19:11-27), the sheep and the goats (Matt. 25:31-46), the rich man and Lazarus (Luke 16:19-31), the workers in the vineyard (Matt. 20:1-16), the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11-32), the Good Samaritan (10:29-37), and the unjust steward (16:1-9).

Narratives

Narratives are stories which may be historical (e.g., passion narratives) or fictional (e.g., parables) and are related by a narrator. Narratives have characters and plot as well as point of view, rhetorical devices, and setting. Examples in the Gospels are the feeding of the five thousand (Matt. 14:13-21; Mark 6:32-44; Luke 9:10-17; John 6:1-15), the Gedarene demoniacs (Matt. 8:28-34; Mark 5:1-20; Luke 8:26-39), the stilling of the storm (Matt. 8:23-27; Mark 4:35-41; Luke 8:22-25), the Infancy narratives (Luke 1–2; Matt. 1–2), the healing of the blind man (John 9), and the Samaritan woman (John 4). The Gospels as a whole may be regarded as narratives also. Examples of narratives in Acts are the conversion of Cornelius (Acts 10:1–11:18) and the miracle of Pentecost (2:1-13). Revelation, though generally considered to be apocalyptic literature, may be interpreted as narrative literature but with special attention paid to the symbolism.

The setting of a narrative — the historical time, social circumstances, and general locale in which its action occurs — is important for interpretation of a narrative. The general setting of the Gerasene demoniac narrative in Mark 5, , e.g., with its tombs, unfettered shackles and chains, and unclean spirits sets the atmosphere of the narrative. The setting indicates that this narrative is about a battle between God and Satan.

Point of view signifies the way a story is told. The actions, setting, and events are mediated through the narrator’s perspective which is expressed in terms of space, time, phrases and words, insight into a character’s thoughts and feelings, and the beliefs, values, and norms of the narrator. An example of spatial point of view may be seen in the way John has arranged the setting and characters in Rev. 4 and 5. At the center of the narrative are the one seated on the throne and the Lamb, and outward from the throne are expanding concentric circles of the creation: the four living creatures, followed by the 24 elders. Then the circle expands to include myriads of angels, and finally the entire creation surrounds the throne. The spatial arrangement reflects the distinct point of view of the writer, namely, that God brings order and stability (and indeed meaning) to the universe.

Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. An analysis of rhetoric looks at the devices an author uses to persuade the reader to make the “proper” interpretation of a narrative. Rhetoric includes but is not limited to such figures of speech as simile, metaphor, repetition, hyperbole, symbols, and irony. A proper understanding of rhetoric is necessary for a correct interpretation of a narrative. For example, John’s Apocalypse uses symbolism so extensively that failure to recognize this rhetorical method inevitably results in misreadings of the book.

Characters in a narrative are persons with moral, dispositional, and emotional qualities that are expressed in what they say and what they do. A narrator may either show (let us see the character talking or acting) or tell (intervene authoritatively to describe or evaluate the character). God speaks only twice in Revelation: once at the beginning and then at the end of the book, and both times says, “I am the Alpha and the Omega” (Rev. 1:8; 21:6). John shows that God is the ground and goal of our existence both by God’s speech and by the placement of the Alpha/Omega self-declaration. By contrast, Mark intervenes in his narrative to tell about certain characters: e.g., the disciples did not understand about the multiplication of loaves for “their hearts were hardened” (Mark 6:52); and the Sadducees “say there is no resurrection” (12:18). Whether a writer tells about a character or shows a character through dialogue or action, the point of studying characterization is to identify the main traits, the defining characteristics, of a character.

Plot is the structure of a narrative’s actions that are directed toward an intended effect. A plot has a beginning, a middle, and an end. The beginning initiates the main action that causes the reader to look forward to something more. The middle presumes that something precedes and more will follow. The end follows what has gone before and requires that nothing follows. Plot is a story that begins with a stable condition, goes through some sort of disequilibrium, and concludes with a resolution, a new stable condition. The disequilibrium or instability is frequently though not always caused by conflicts. There are conflicts with the supernatural (demons, Satan, unclean spirits), nature (the sea), characters (Jesus vs. religious authorities or crowds or disciples), or within oneself (Jesus in the garden of Gethsemane). For example, the plot of Revelation is as follows. The main section of the book begins with a stable condition in heaven with God on the throne in control of the universe (chs. 4, 5). This is followed by a series of instabilities that test the resolve of Christians and the commitments of the inhabitants of the earth (plagues and persecutions by the beast in chs. 6–19). At the conclusion of the book a new stable condition is ushered in with the arrival of the millennial kingdom and the new Jerusalem (chs. 20–22). The importance of plot analysis is that it forces us to ask the fundamental question “Why?” What is the causal relationship between events in the narrative? What causes disequilibrium in a narrative, and how are the instabilities resolved? What are the consequences of the resolution?

Letters

Paul and other NT letter writers follow conventional forms of letter writing: a salutation with a greeting, followed by a thanksgiving. The body of the letter follows with often a parenetic section for ethical instruction and exhortation. Finally, the conclusion of the letter follows with a benediction.

Paul uses numerous literary forms within his letters: e.g., hymnlike material, confessional creeds, diatribes, antitheses, chiasms, poetry, typologies, anaphoras, irony, sarcasm. 1 Tim. 3:16 is representative of the artistic qualities found in NT letters. Here an interlocking chiastic structure joins together elements from two worlds: the world above and this world. The first chiasm — flesh (this world): spirit (world above) :: angels (world above) : Gentiles (this world) — is joined by a second chiasm — angels (world above) : Gentiles (this world) :: world (this world) : glory (world above). Thus, by an intricate interlocking structure the hymnlike creed proclaims that two worlds that were previously separate — the world above and this world — are now joined together and unified by Jesus Christ.

Bibliography. M. H. Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Terms, 5th ed. (Chicago, 1988); M. A. Powell, What Is Narrative Criticism? (Minneapolis, 1990); D. M. Rhoads and D. Michie, Mark as Story (Philadelphia, 1982).

James L. Resseguie

Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

LITERATURE, NEW TESTAMENT AS

Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (2000)