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CHRONOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT

NT chronology can be divided into discussion of Jesus and of the apostolic period, including especially Paul. All study of NT chronology, however, is complicated by several factors: the NT authors were not concerned with the same kind of date-keeping as moderns are; means of calculating time were different in the ancient world; and, most importantly, there are few firmly established dates around which to create a chronology.

Jesus’ Life

The issues regarding the life of Jesus are: his birth, the beginning of his ministry, its duration, and his death.

Birth

Discussion of the birth of Jesus revolves around three major events: the death of Herod the Great, the Lukan census, and the visit of the magi.

Death of Herod. Matt. 2:1; Luke 1:5 state that Jesus was born during Herod’s reign over Judea, and Matt. 2:15, 19-20 that Herod died while Jesus was a baby. Josephus states that Herod died 34 years after putting Antigonus to death in 37 b.c. and 37 years after being appointed king by the Romans in 40 b.c. (ca. 4 b.c.), although some recent scholars argue for a date of 4/3 b.c. for Herod’s death; Ant. 17.190-91; BJ 1.665), that there was an eclipse of the moon the year Herod died (12 or 13 March 4 b.c.; Ant. 17.167), and that the Passover occurred soon after his son Archelaus became king (17 April 4 B.C.; Ant. 17.213; BJ 2.10). Thus Jesus was born before April 4 b.c., not in the year 0. In the 6th century a.d. a mistake in calculating dates was made by Dionysius Exiguus, which has not been corrected.

Census. Luke 2:1-5 states that a census was taken by the Emperor Augustus before Jesus was born, and that Jesus’ parents traveled to Bethlehem to enroll in their hometown. However, no Roman historian mentions a census ca. 4 b.c. In Luke 2 the census is reported in relation to the governorship of Quirinius, who became governor of Syria after a.d. 6 and took a census then (Ant. 17.355; 18.356). Many, if not most, scholars hold that Luke erred in his chronology, by either incorrectly identifying the governor of Syria as Quirinius, giving Quirinius the wrong title, or introducing an earlier census that never occurred.

Several factors must be considered before Luke’s account is dismissed. First, the Romans undertook censuses throughout their empire. In Roman Egypt, it is well established that from a.d. 33/34 until 257/258 censuses were taken at 14-year intervals. Recently discussed evidence, however, indicates that during the reign of Augustus censuses were taken at seven-year intervals, and can be established with indirect and direct evidence for 11/10, 4/3 b.c., a.d. 4/5, and 11/12. Second, in light of the turmoil at the close of Herod’s reign (Ant. 16.300-404; BJ 1.516-51), including what he perceived as threats to his power by his sons and strained relations with Rome and the fact that he was a client king who ruled only because of Roman favor, it may well be that the Egyptian census of 4/3 b.c. was extended to Judea or one like it performed there, and this is the one referred to in Luke 2:1. Third, the edict of Vibius Maximus in a.d. 104 (P. Lond. III 904.18-27), that all people return to their homes for the census, indicates the plausibility of the trip to Bethlehem recorded in the Gospels. Finally, the Greek grammar of Luke 2:2 has been interpreted that this was “the previous census, before Quirinius was governor of Syria.” Luke may be using Quirinius’ governorship and census as a reference point, since Quirinius’ census in a.d. 6, when Judea became part of Syria, was traumatic for the Jews — it marked the end of even the pretense of self-rule. This evidence supports a date of ca. 4 b.c. for Jesus’ birth.

Magi. Various proposals have been made regarding the “star” that magi or astrologers followed in search of Jesus (Matt. 2:1-12). Halley’s comet, which can be seen every 76 years, would have been visible in the sky in 12/11 b.c., but this date is too early. Some posit a form of spectacular exploding star (supernova) ca. 5/4 b.c., but there is no firm evidence. The astronomer Johannes Kepler in 1606 calculated that there had been a conjunction of the planets of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn in 7 b.c., something that only happens every 805 years. Astrology was widespread in the ancient Near East, with special events often seen to accompany the birth of significant people (e.g., Alexander the Great). However, the story of the magi adds little to establishing the date of Jesus’ birth.

The evidence points to a date of Jesus’ birth ca. 5/4 b.c. The traditional date of 25 December (6 January for the Eastern Church) is based upon the influence of later Roman paganism on Christianity, and cannot be relied upon.

Ministry

The beginning of Jesus’ ministry revolves around that of John the Baptist, statements in the Gospels about Jesus’ age, and the building of the temple. The story of Jesus’ visit to the temple when he was 12 (Luke 2:41-45) provides no evidence for establishing a precise chronology.

John the Baptist. Luke 3:1-2 purports to date the beginning of John’s ministry precisely to the 15th year of the Emperor Tiberius. However, this may not be as precise as first appears. If the Julian calendar is used, the date would be a.d. 29; if the regnal years beginning with Tiberius’ own regency are used (most likely), the date would be 28/29; if the regnal years beginning with Tiberius’ co-rule with Augustus are used (11/12), it would be 25/26 (although his co-rule is disputed by historians, and does not appear to have been used for dating events to his reign). (This assumes that Luke knew how to calculate dates according to these methods and was interested in doing so.) For most, the last date would be too early, although for some the first two are too late. There is no indication in the NT regarding the amount of time between the beginning of John’s ministry and Jesus’ being baptized by him, but the two probably occurred ca. 28/29.

Jesus’ Age. Luke 3:23 says that Jesus was “about 30 years of age” when he began his ministry. The word translated “about” indicates that “30” is an approximate term. Although some have proposed that 30 is used here for theological reasons or to indicate an age of spiritual maturity, such proposals are probably at best secondary to this serving as an approximating temporal indicator. By reckoning from the date of Jesus’ birth, he would have begun his ministry ca. 27 (the date could be later due to the length of time being imprecise).

The Temple. According to John 2:13–3:21 Jesus visits Jerusalem at Passover. He is told that it had taken 46 years to build the temple (it was still under construction, and never completely finished before the Romans destroyed it in 70). According to Josephus (Ant. 15.380), Herod’s rebuilding of the temple began in the 18th year of his reign (in BJ 1.401 Josephus dates it to the 15th year). This was the same year that Augustus arrived in Syria (Ant. 15.354), which has been calculated to 20 b.c. (Dio Cassius Hist. 54.7.4). Herod’s 18th year would thus have been 20/19 b.c., and 46 years from beginning the temple would be a.d. 28. Jesus probably began his ministry, therefore, ca. 28, at the age of ca. 31.

The duration of Jesus’ ministry is one of the most controversial aspects in establishing the chronology of his life, especially since the Synoptic Gospels and John seem to be at odds. The Synoptics mention one Passover (Matt. 26:17; Mark 14:1; Luke 22:1), while John mentions three (John 2:13, 23; 6:4; 11:55). As a result, proposals for the length of Jesus’ ministry range from one to four years. Many of the church fathers held to a one-year ministry (some viewing John 2:13; 11:55 as indicating the beginning and ending of Jesus’ ministry with Passovers). Others argue for a three- to four-year ministry based on John, some even advocating an unmentioned fourth Passover between 2:13 and 6:4. Although many have criticized the reliability of John’s chronology because of his theological tendencies, it is too extreme to explain every reference to Passover in theological terms. Most likely Jesus had a three-year ministry.

Death

The death of Jesus involves consideration of the day and year of that event.

Day. Determining the day of Jesus’ death again apparently brings the Synoptic Gospels and John into conflict. All agree that Jesus was crucified on a Friday (Matt. 27:62; Mark 15:42; Luke 23:54; John 19:31, 42), before the beginning of the sabbath (and that he was resurrected on the third day, Sunday), and that it was the time of the Passover. The Synoptics portray Jesus as eating the Last Supper as a Passover-like meal with his disciples the night before he was crucified (Matt. 26:17-35; Mark 14:12-25; Luke 22:7-38), although there is some ambiguity that they may consider the day of Unleavened Bread as the day before the Passover (Matt. 27:62; Mark 14:12; Luke 23:54). In the Synoptics, Jesus’ arrest, trial, and crucifixion apparently took place on Passover (15 Nisan), the day before the sabbath. John, however, portrays Jesus as eating the Last Supper on the day before the Passover (John 19:14, 16), or the day of Preparation (14 Nisan), the same day on which he was killed and also the day before the sabbath. There have been many attempts to reconcile this apparent discrepancy. Some have posited that Mark (subsequently followed by Matthew and Luke) erred in linking the Last Supper with the Passover meal. Others suggest a private pre-Passover meal celebrated by Jesus and his disciples or that the Passover was celebrated on several successive days because of the large numbers of animals to be slaughtered. Some contend that various calendars were involved, according to region or religious association. Qumran may have followed a solar as opposed to a lunar calendar followed by other Jews, but there is no evidence that Jesus and his followers followed the Qumran calendar. Some suggest that the parameters of a day were calculated differently: from sunrise to sunrise (the Synoptics: Galileans and Pharisees) or from evening to evening (John: Judeans and Sadducees). Those who wish to harmonize the Gospel accounts frequently favor this last proposal. There is no scholarly consensus on this, but many scholars contend, on the basis of John and possible ambiguity in the Synoptics, that Jesus was crucified on Friday 14 Nisan.

Year. The year of Jesus’ death is determined by two factors: when 14 Nisan falls on a Friday, and when the people involved in Jesus’ death were in office. These people include Pilate, prefect of Judea, 26-36 (Matt. 27:2-26; Mark 15:1-15; Luke 23:1-25; John 18:28–19:16; Acts 3:13; 4:27; 13:28; Ant. 18.89); Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, 4 b.c.–a.d. 39 (Luke 23:6-12; Ant. 18.240-56; 19:351); and Caiaphas, high priest, 18-37 (Matt. 26:3, 57; John 11:49-53; 18:13-14; Ant. 18.35, 90-95). Within the rule of Pilate, 27, 30, 33 and 36 seem to be theoretical possibilities for 14 Nisan falling on a Friday. According to the reckoning above, however, 27 is too early and 36 too late. Most scholars, especially those who argue for a shorter ministry of Jesus, believe that Jesus was killed in 30. Scholars who argue for a longer ministry tend to believe that he died in 33.

Apostolic Period, Including Paul

Reconstructing the apostolic period involves examination of three major bodies of evidence: the book of Acts, Paul’s letters, and extrabiblical people and events. Since Acts may well have been written by someone closely associated with the early Christian missionary movement, and in light of the fact that Paul’s letters were not written with historical chronology in mind, the distinction often made between Acts as a secondary source and Paul’s letters as primary sources is clearly overdrawn. All of the available data must be judiciously weighed.

Acts

The book of Acts provides the following sequentially-listed information regarding the chronology of the early Church, especially with reference to Paul: the stoning of Stephen, at which Paul is a “young man” (Acts 7:58; possibly indicating birth in a.d. 5 to 15); Paul’s conversion, stay in Damascus, and dramatic escape (9:1-25; cf. 22:4-5; 26:12); first trip to Jerusalem, and then to Tarsus and Antioch (9:26-30; 11:25-26); second trip to Jerusalem, bringing famine relief from Antioch (11:27-30; 12:25); first missionary journey (13:1–14:28); third trip to Jerusalem, for the apostolic council (15:1-35); second missionary journey (15:35–18:22; some put the events of 18:18–19:20 together, although Antioch seems in Acts to mark a point of termination and beginning for the Pauline journeys); third missionary journey (18:23–21:16); final (fourth or fifth) trip to Jerusalem (21:17–23:10); imprisonment for two years in Caesarea (23:12–26:32); and journey to Rome and imprisonment there (27:1–28:31).

It is extremely difficult to establish the amounts of time that each stage of the chronology took, since Acts has only infrequent references to amounts of time (11:26; 14:3, 28; 18:11; 19:8, 10, 22; 20:3; 24:27; 28:30).

Epistles

Paul’s letters, esp. Gal. 1–2, provide the following chronology (the relationship of these events as compiled from the individual letters is subject to difference of opinion by scholars): Paul’s conversion (Gal. 1:12-16); stay in Arabia and return to Damascus (v. 17); first trip to Jerusalem (vv. 18-20); stay in Syria and Cilicia (vv. 21-24); second trip to Jerusalem to confer with Peter (2:1-10); incident at Antioch with Peter (vv. 11-14; perhaps before the second trip to Jerusalem); hints of a first Macedonian and Achaian/Greek missionary journey (1 Thess. 1:8; 3:1; cf. Phil. 4:15-16); stay in Ephesus (2 Cor. 1:8-11), before going to Troas and to Macedonia (1 Cor. 16:8-9; 2 Cor. 2:12-13); and clear reference to what was probably a later Macedonian (Philippian) and Achaian/Greek missionary journey (1 Cor. 16:1-9; 2 Cor. 8-9; Rom. 15:19-32).

Apart from the two references in Galatians (Gal. 1:18; 2:1), the Pauline letters contain no specific temporal indicators. The above list offers a probable arrangement of the events, although the first missionary journey may have occurred before the second trip to Jerusalem, since 1 Thessalonians does not mention the Jerusalem visit. This is unlikely, however, on the basis of the sequencing of Gal. 1–2.

Extrabiblical References

Extrabiblical points of chronological reference attest to eight events with possible bearing on NT chronology. All have debatable interpretations.

1. In 2 Cor. 11:32-33 Paul mentions that the ethnarch of King Aretas was guarding Damascus. Critical questions include dispute over the date of Aretas’ death (between 38 and 40), the date at which Aretas took control of Damascus (possibly as late as 37, the accession of Caligula), and whether this passage even requires that Aretas was in control of Damascus. The reference may indicate that Paul’s escape took place between 37 and 38-40, or simply before 38-40.

2. Acts 11:28 says that a prophet named Agabus foretold a great famine during the reign of Claudius (41-54). Possible dates range from 45, 46, 48 to after 51. Some dispute that there was a famine at all, certainly a world-wide one (Suetonius Claudius 18; Tacitus Ann. 12.43). Further difficulty in dating the second Jerusalem trip is that the prophecy may have been given well in advance of the famine itself.

3. Acts 12:20-30 records the death of Herod Agrippa I in 44 (cf. Ant. 19.343-52). Acts places this between the story of Peter in vv. 1-19 and the summary statement of v. 24 and resumption of Paul’s story in v. 25. It is difficult to establish the exact chronological relation of these events, although it is likely that the sequence is correct, and that the first missionary journey took place after Herod Agrippa’s death.

4. Acts 13:7 says that Sergius Paulus was proconsul of Cyprus. Several inscriptions link such a person with Cyprus, but they are ambiguous with regard to reference and date.

5. Acts 18:2 refers to Claudius’ having commanded all the Jews to leave Rome. Suetonius (25.4) refers to the expulsion of Jews who were causing disturbances at the instigation of a Chrestus (it is unclear that this is a reference to Christ), but no date is given. The traditional date of this event — still widely held in scholarly circles — is 49, following the 5th-century church historian Orosius (7.6.15), who dates it to the 9th year of Claudius’ reign. According to Dio Cassius (60.6.6), expulsion of the Jews was not possible during Jewish uprisings in 41 because of their large numbers, but this alternative date has been championed of late due to the questionable reliability of Orosius’ information and the possibility that the expulsion involved only some but not all Jews. The implications for establishing chronology are significant. The earlier date suggests an early date for Paul’s first visit to Corinth, even if he did not arrive right after Priscilla and Aquila. This would also require a second visit to Corinth when Gallio was proconsul, possibly either just before or after the Jerusalem council. Acts 18 provides some evidence of conflation because v. 8 refers to Crispus and v. 17 to Sosthenes as ruler of the synagogue. The later date, which suggests that Acts 18 records a single visit to Corinth during the time of Gallio, is still more likely.

6. Acts 18:12 refers to Gallio as proconsul of Achaia, before whom Paul was dragged by the Jews. The well-known Gallio inscription (fragmentary and in several major sections) found at Delphi is an edict by Claudius referring to Gallio as proconsul. On the basis of this and other inscriptions that establish its date, as well as the fact that proconsuls usually served one-year terms, it is possible to date Gallio’s term of office to 51/52. Paul appears to have been in Corinth by 51 or 52, whether or not this was his first visit.

7. In Acts 23:2; 24:1 Paul appears in the presence of Ananias the high priest. Appointed in 47, Ananias was sent to Rome in 52 as the result of a dispute between the Jews and Samaritans, but was probably restored to power when Claudius ruled in favor of the Jews, and continued in that office until replaced, probably in 59 (Ant. 20.128-36; BJ 2.241-44).

8. Acts 23:24–26:32 places Paul in the custody of the Roman procurators Felix and Festus. He was in Felix’ custody for two years (24:27) before Festus took office. According to Acts, within days after his arrival Festus went to Jerusalem and was persuaded to put Paul on trial, but Paul appealed to Caesar. A few days later King Herod Agrippa II visited Caesarea, and during his stay Paul appeared before him. It is difficult to establish the dates of the procuratorships of Felix and Festus. According to Josephus, Felix took up his post in 52 or 53 (BJ 2.247; Ant. 20.137). There is dispute over when his term came to an end; many biblical scholars argue for a date ca. 55, but classical scholars prefer a later date. The early date is based on the notion that Pallas, the wealthy and highly influential treasurer of Claudius (Suetonius 28) fell out of favor with Nero in 55 and must have immediately lost his power, and thereby authority to keep his brother Felix in office. However, there is clear evidence (Tacitus Ann. 13-14) that Pallas retained much power, until he was poisoned by Nero in 62 (cf. BJ 2.250-70). The later date for Festus’ succeeding Felix, however, is still disputed. Estimates range from 56, on the basis of the Latin translation of Eusebius’ Chronicle (2.155), to 58 to 61. A very plausible date is 59.

Synthesis of a Pauline Chronology

On the basis of the evidence above, several plausible scenarios of a Pauline chronology can be developed. Perhaps most noteworthy, those from Acts and the Pauline letters have a surprisingly high degree of harmony. The bibliography below provides alternative timelines, but the following is a plausible suggestion. Not all of the data fit equally well, as the disputed items mentioned above indicate. Any chronology of the NT is subject to numerous limitations.

One must first decide when Paul was converted. a.d. 33 or 34 is likely, with the result that he stayed three years in Arabia and Damascus, before first visiting Jerusalem in 37. After ca. 10 more years (Gal. 2:1 marks 14 years after his conversion), Paul made his famine visit to Jerusalem (probably to be equated with Gal. 2:1-10). The first missionary journey was then from 47 to 48, and the Jerusalem council of Acts 15 in 49. This order, following Acts, is not incompatible with the Pauline chronology. The second missionary journey (first Macedonian and Achaian/Greek visit) lasted from 49 to 52, and the third (second Macedonian and Achaian/Greek visit) from 53 to 57. Paul was arrested in Jerusalem and imprisoned in Caesarea from 57 to 59. In 59 he was sent to Rome, where he was imprisoned until 62, and may well have died there.

At this point, Acts includes nothing further of a Pauline chronology. On the basis of a possible placement of the Pastoral Epistles within the Pauline chronology, it has been posited that Paul was released in 62, traveled for two years in the Mediterranean, possibly went west to Spain, and then was arrested and killed in Rome in 64 or 65 under Nero.

Bibliography. L. C. A. Alexander, “Chronology of Paul,” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. G. F. Hawthorne and R. P. Martin (Downers Grove, 1993), 115-23; R. S. Bagnall and B. W. Frier, The Demography of Roman Egypt (Cambridge, 1994); H. W. Hoehner, “Chronology,” in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, ed. J. B. Green and S. McKnight (Downers Grove, 1992), 118-22; R. Jewett, A Chronology of Paul’s Life (Philadelphia, 1979); A. Kushnir-Stein, “Another Look at Josephus’ Evidence for the Date of Herod’s Death,” Scripta Classica Israelica 14 (1995): 73-86; G. Lüdemann, Paul, Apostle to the Gentiles (Philadelphia, 1984); L. McDonald and S. E. Porter, Early Christianity and Its Sacred Literature (Peabody, 2000); G. Ogg, The Chronology of the Life of Paul (London, 1968); B. W. R. Pearson, “The Lukan Censuses, Revisited,” CBQ 61 (1999): 262-82; R. Riesner, Paul’s Early Period (Grand Rapids, 1998).

Stanley E. Porter