Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

HOUSE

Top plan of a typical Israelite “four-room house” (Giselle S. Hasel)

A shelter or dwelling place. Biblical and Near Eastern texts and archaeological contexts contain independent and complementary sources for the historical and cultural development of the house in Syria-Palestine.

Textual Usage

In its basic sense, Heb. bayiṯ designates a building. The term encompasses all social and economic levels of society and has an extended history throughout Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Syria-Palestine. It may specify a structure in which a man and his family live (Deut. 19:1; 21:12); a palace or building of a king (Gen. 12:15; Jer. 39:8); a temple (1 Sam. 5:2; 31:10), including the temple of Yahweh (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Dan. 1:2; Arad Ostraca); and, if the complex was comprised of several buildings or rooms, a room or hall (Esth. 7:8; 2:3; Jer. 36:22; cf. Amos 3:15). The term may also designate the grave or residence of the dead (Job 17:13; 30:23; Ps. 49:11[MT 12]; Eccl. 12:5).

“House” frequently designates families, clans, or tribes. The household (or social unit) is often described in cultic contexts (e.g., Exod. 12:3-11; 20:10). The term may also refer to ruling dynasties (e.g., “house of Saul,” 2 Sam. 3:1; 9:1-3; “house of David,” 1 Sam. 20:16; 1 Kgs. 13:2; cf. Dan stela, Mesha stela).

The term also occurs frequently in place names, in conjunction with divine names (e.g., Bethel, Gen. 12:8; Beth-baal-meon, Josh. 13:17; Beth-horon; 16:5; 18:13), as a topographical term (Beth-arabah, Josh. 15:6, 61; 18:18; Beth-zur, 15:58), as a simple substantive (Beth-ezel, Mic. 1:11; Beth-lebaoth, Josh. 19:6), or where the second element is a proper or family name (Beth-hoglah, Josh. 15:6; 18:19, 21; Atroth-beth-joab, 1 Chr. 2:54). Parallels to many of these usages can be found in ancient Near Eastern sources.

The NT term, Gk. oíkos, has both literal and figurative meanings. Jesus spoke of “my Father’s house” (John 2:16; 14:2) in reference to the temple. God’s “house” was often applied to the Church (Eph. 2:19-22; Heb. 3:1-6), a designation partly reflecting the early Christian practice of using houses as places of meeting and fellowship (2 Tim. 4:19; Phlm. 2; 2 John 10).

Archaeological Contexts

The architectural development of houses in Syria-Palestine has been illuminated by more than a century of archaeological research. During the Early Bronze Age at least five types can be distinguished. Curvilinear houses have been associated with several ethnic groups. The elongated, oval plan of houses at Yiftaḥel was attributed to the invasive Esdraelon culture. EB II oval structures excavated in the Sinai were attributed to local populations. At Meẓer a rectilinear Chalcolithic house is stratigraphically sandwiched between two later EB I oval houses. The rectilinear houses found in EB II Arad and Tell Chuera consist of several attached rooms which lend support to the interpretation that this was a family compound. This type, found in the southern Sinai, is closely related in function to the family compound, but is made of subcircular stone foundations with a center pillar and numerous benches.

Middle Bronze Age houses were often two-storied, with rooms surrounding a pillared hall (Tell Beit Mirsim, Megiddo, and Tell Biʾa; cf. the clay models from Emar). Late Bronze houses demonstrate continuity with the MB architectural tradition. During this period of influence from Egyptian, Hittite, Sea People, and Israelite cultural dynamics, several new house types are introduced. Egyptian-type “residencies” are introduced in Syria-Palestine (Beth-shan, Tell Farʿah [South], Tell el-µesi, Tel Masos, Aphek, Pella) and have been associated with Egyptian political domination. Other houses display Hittite influences (Tell Abu Hawam, Hazor). At the end of this period and at the beginning of the Iron Age a new house type appears that is a derivative of LB architectural traditions. This “four-room house,” built of stone, has a center hall with opposing sets of smaller rooms and usually is built with an upper story. It has been ethnically associated with the Israelites, but also has been identified at coastland and Transjordanian sites as well. During the Iron II period, Assyrian and Babylonian architectural elements were introduced in Syria-Palestine after the incorporation of numerous sites as vassal cities.

During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, city planning became highly advanced and houses were constructed on a rectangular plan. By Roman times, the rich were making winter homes in Jericho. Houses were typically constructed with an outer court surrounded by rooms with an inner court accompanied by more private quarters. Those in the higher levels of society added bathrooms to their homes. Herod’s palace in Jerusalem, his winter palace in Jericho, and his fortress at Masada contained elaborate gardens and luxurious quarters with mosaic floors and associated bathhouses.

Bibliography. P. M. M. Daviau, Houses and Their Furnishings in Bronze Age Palestine. JSOT/ASORMS 8 (Sheffield, 1993); H. A. Hoffner, “bayiṯ,” TDOT 2:107-116; J. S. Holladay, Jr., “House: Syro-Palestinian Houses,” OEANE, 94-114; A. Kempinski and R. Reich, eds., The Architecture of Ancient Israel (Jerusalem, 1992); O. Michel, “oíkos,” TDNT 5:119-134; K. R. Veenhof, ed., Houses and Households in Ancient Mesopotamia (Istanbul, 1996).

Michael G. Hasel

Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

HOUSE

Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (2000)