Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

PSALMS, BOOK OF

Often called the hymnal of the Second Temple, the book of Psalms provides a window through which ancient Israel’s response to God’s presence, or absence, may be viewed. The 150 psalms in the MT give voice to a panoply of human emotions, sometimes sublime but at other times embarrassingly vengeful. The psalms arose in the experience of worship; in them both individual prayer and communal praise find expression, as do private reflection and learned instruction. Hardly a “little Bible,” as Martin Luther claimed, the book of Psalms differs from the overwhelming majority of the other biblical writings which purport to declare divine revelation to Israel.

The human voice within the psalms resonates with that of later worshippers, Christian and Jewish, who have found ways to recite the laments and hymns during worship. According to the Mishnah, Levites recited a specific psalm on each day of the week: Ps. 24 on Sunday, 48 on Monday, 82 on Tuesday, 94 on Wednesday, 81 on Thursday, 93 on Friday, and 92 on Saturday. M. Taʿan. 2:3 assigns Ps. 102 to days of fasting; 104 was used by Christians at the Feast of Pentecost. Ps. 136 is the Great Hallel for sabbath services, 113–118 the Egyptian Hallel. Several psalms are known as penitential psalms (6, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, 143), and 79 is recited at the western wall in the Old City of Jerusalem on Friday evening, the 9th of Ab. The LXX and Talmud assign Ps. 93 to the eve of the sabbath when God completed the creation of the world, and rabbinic tradition associates 95 with a New Year’s festival.

Inspired by these biblical psalms, later worshippers wrote their own. One of these actually became canonical, Ps. 151 in the LXX (included in Codex Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, and Alexandrinus, which notes that this psalm is “outside the number”). An unknown Jewish author wrote 18 psalms in the 1st century b.c.e., now called the Psalms of Solomon. The sectarians at Qumran were particularly fond of psalms. Besides writing their own Hodayot comprising some 25 psalms, they left behind an extensive cache of biblical psalms. Fragments of 115 psalms have survived, along with a scroll (11QPsa) containing 39 biblical psalms; 2 Sam. 23:1-7 (“a Prose Statement on David’s Compositions”); Sir. 51:13-30 (“an Apostrophe to Zion”); Pss. 151, 154 (“a Plea for Deliverance”), 155; 149–150 is “a Hymn to the Creator.” Cave 11 yielded another scroll with fragments of Pss. 141, 133, 144. Yet another has noncanonical psalms but concludes with biblical 91. Nearby sites (S of En-gedi, Masada) have also yielded Hebrew texts of Psalms. Four commentary texts have portions of psalms.

One of the oldest Hebrew manuscripts, the Aleppo Codex, lacks 15:1–25:2; among Greek codices, Vaticanus does not have 105:27–137:6 (added in the 15th century), and Alexandrinus lacks 49:20–79:11. The order in the MT differs from that in the LXX:

MT LXX

1–8 1–8

9–10 9

11–113 10–112

114–115 113

MT LXX

116 114–115

117–146 116–145

147 146–147

148–150

148–150 151

The sequence in the LXX is supported by the fact that Pss. 9–10 were originally a single psalm, but the separation of 114 from 115 favors the order of the MT. Both LXX and MT divide a single psalm into 42–43. Confusion also results from the MT’s reckoning of titles as the first verse. Some English versions follow this practice (NAB, NJPSV); others do not (e.g., RSV, KJV, NIV, TEV).

The early Christians sang hymns, although it is not clear whether these were taken from the OT or composed by Christians (cf. Mark 14:26; Acts 4:24; 1 Cor. 14:26; Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16). It has been estimated that the NT cites psalms (55 citations of 365 psalms) from memory, but establishing actual quotations is difficult. Christian writers (e.g., Clement of Rome) frequently cite Psalms (49 citations from 32 psalms), as does the Didache. Justin’s Dialogue with Trypho contains 47 references to 24 psalms.

The name “Psalms” derives from Gk. psalmoí, “songs of praise” (Vaticanus has psalmoí as the title for Psalms; Sinaiticus has no title, but concludes with “psalmoí of David.”) “Psalter” comes from the title in Alexandrinus (psaltḗrion) and indicates a musical instrument, presumably to accompany the singing of Psalms. The MT lacks a title, but that is typical for all the books of the OT; at the end of Ps. 72 is the notation “the prayers (tĕpillôṯ) of David have come to an end.” Rabbinic literature prefers the terms tĕhillîm or tillîm (“praises”) to the Masoretic “prayers.” Together these two, praise and prayer, describe the contents of the Psalter.

Like the Torah (Pentateuch), Psalms is divided into five books (1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150). Each of these books concludes with a doxology (41:13[MT 14]; 72:19; 89:52[53]; 106:48; 150). In Book I, closely associated with David by means of superscriptions, laments dominate, but by Books IV and V praise comes to the forefront. The final five psalms are framed by the expression, “Praise the Lord,” which suggests that the book of Psalms leads worshippers through grief to thanksgiving, from lament to praise.

Of the 150 psalms in the MT, 116 have superscriptions. Virtually all of the psalms in Book I have superscriptions linking them to David. The exceptions are 1–2, 10, 33, but the first two introduce the whole book of Psalms, whereas 10, 33 are linked with the immediately preceding psalms. Book II duplicates two psalms in Book I (53 and 14; 70 and 40:13-17[14-18]). An unusual feature of Books II-III is their preference for the divine name Elohim over Yahweh, but inconsistency abounds. Although Elohim occurs 244 times, Yahweh appears 44 times in 42–83. In Book I Elohim is used only 49 times, and it occurs only 70 times in 84–150. With 44 psalms, including the unique 119, Book V is the longest of the five. An alphabetic acrostic, 119 has eight lines beginning with the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet in sequence. Furthermore, each line has one of eight synonyms for the law (except 90, which has a ninth synonym, and 122). Less complex acrostics include 25, 34, 111, 112, 145 (cf. the irregular pattern in 9–10, where every second verse begins with a letter of the alphabet in sequence).

The titles of individual psalms range from a single word in 98 (mizmôr, “a psalm”) to extensive comment (e.g., 18). Only 34 psalms lack titles (I: 1–2, 10, 33; II: 43, 71; IV: 91, 93, 94–97, 99, 104–106; V: 107, 111–119, 135–137, 146-150). Perhaps the invitation to praise the Lord functioned as a substitute for a title in 111–113, 117, 135, 146–150. Thirteen titles recall particular events in David’s life (3, 7, 18, 51, 52, 54, 56–57, 59–60, 63, 142). Another 55 have a specific liturgical instruction, “to the leader,” while others refer to musical instruments and to as yet unknown things. Still others record genre designations such as prayer, praise, song, maskîl, miktām, and šiggāyôn. Considerably more variation in titles from the MT exists in Books IV and V in the Qumran manuscripts. The term mizmôr is found 57 times, and selâ (“pause”?) occurs in the body of some psalms (it also appears in psalms outside the book of Psalms, e.g., in Hab. 3:3, 9, 13; in 3:19 one also finds “To the choirmaster: with stringed instruments”).

The tendency during the postexilic period to attribute sacred writings to revered leaders — the Pentateuch to Moses, the Wisdom Literature to Solomon, prophetic texts like Isa. 40–66 to Isaiah — led to an identification of David as the author of numerous psalms. The attribution of psalms to him in 2 Sam. 1:10-27; 22:2-51 (which also appears as Ps. 18), together with the tradition that he was a musician (1 Sam. 18:10; Amos 6:5), encouraged this trend. The LXX carries it even beyond the point reached by the MT, increasing the number of psalms attributed to David from 73 to 85. Although Heb. lĕḏāwiḏ does not necessarily mean Davidic authorship, its intent seems to have been that in many instances. It could also suggest that the particular psalm was written for a collection honoring David. The Qumran sectarians left no doubt about their view; a note states that David composed 3600 psalms and 446 songs, plus four for the stricken, totaling 4050 (cf. 1 Kgs. 4:32[5:12] for a similar comment about Solomon’s literary productivity — 3000 proverbs, 1005 songs).

Not every psalm is credited to David, or even associated with him in some manner. Other persons honored in this way include Jeduthun (39, 62, 77), Heman (88), Solomon (72, 127), Moses (90), Ethan (89), and two musical guilds, the Korahites (42, 44–49, 84–85, 87–88) and the Asaphites (50, 70–83). The family of Asaph is said to have been active as late as the Josianic reforms (621 b.c.e.) and during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah nearly two centuries later.

When were the psalms written? Certain similarities with Canaanite texts from Ugarit have suggested an early date for 29; 82; 19:2-7, but late texts (cf. Daniel) also show affinities with this literature. Plausible connections with David make 2, 10, 18 viable candidates for the 10th century, or at the very least they imply a date during the Monarchy. Several psalms reflect interests in the north, leading some critics to think they derive from the northern kingdom prior to its defeat by Assyrian soldiers in 722. Other psalms seem to assume the existence of a monarchy (e.g., 2, 18, 20–21, 45, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, 144). Linguistic features point to a postexilic date for 103, 117, 119, 124–125, 145. Content alone places 137 in postexilic times. Every attempt to date psalms encounters enormous difficulty, for their content is altogether indifferent to historical events except those serving paradigmatically (e.g., the Exodus from Egypt).

The early Church understood the psalms as personal expressions of worship in definite historical contexts. That view prevailed until the 19th century, when critical scholars began to emphasize the genres of individual psalms and to stress their congregational origin. The groundbreaking work of Hermann Gunkel elevated form criticism to pride of place, and this approach has continued to the present. Essentially, it distinguishes the following literary types: lament (both individual and communal), thanksgiving hymn (individual and communal), royal enthronement psalms, wisdom and torah psalms, entrance liturgies, prophetic exhortation, and mixed forms. Laments routinely include an opening address, description of trouble, petition, expression of confidence, and a vow. Thanksgiving songs include praise, description of past trouble, testimony, and exhortation. Naturally, individual psalms vary the elements, and it is often impossible to distinguish between a lament and a song of thanksgiving which presupposes the situation described in laments, whereas the expression of confidence resembles thanksgiving. Moreover, some designations of genre are based on content; that is true of royal psalms, songs of Zion, wisdom and torah psalms.

Form critics sought to illuminate the social setting of individual psalms. Accordingly, they posited special festivals (e.g., enthronement festival, royal Zion festival, covenant renewal ceremony, liturgical sermons). The Akitu, or New Year, festival in ancient Babylonia was often assumed to have a corollary in Judah, with annual coronation of the Davidic king. For this occasion Royal Psalms (e.g., 2, 18, 20, 21, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, 144) are thought to have been used. Entrance liturgies would have served to prepare worshippers before they entered the holy temple (15, 24). A royal wedding gave rise to 45; didactic or learned instruction produced many psalms (e.g., 19, 119, 78, 89); and prophetic exhortation yielded 50, 81, 95. Songs of Zion give voice to the people’s fondness for Jerusalem as the divine dwelling place (46, 48, 76, 84, 87, 122). Another group of psalms is presumed to have been sung as pilgrims made their way to Jerusalem (120–134) or as priests ascended the steps within the temple.

Some psalms seem to relate to individuals during times of extraordinary suffering brought on by illness, attack by foreign armies, slander, magical practices, and the like. Others give voice to private joy and public expressions of honor. Individuals express their deepest emotions in prayer, sometimes in near despair and at other times barely able to contain their jubilation. Locating precise settings for all of these has resulted in little more than vague generalities.

For this and other reasons, interpreters have begun to emphasize the rhetoric of psalms, their persuasive use of language. Advances in the understanding of poetry have isolated numerous features of the psalms. The balancing of one colon with another is achieved through various means, but prominence is usually given to chiasm (the forming of an X by structuring a poem as follows: ABB&x#02B9;A&x#02B9;). Repetition takes place in a number of ways, e.g., question and answer; statement and quotation; a “better than” expression; A varies and B repeats: abstract and concrete; whole and synecdoche; two terms as a merismus; simile and reality.

In some scholarly circles, rhetorical criticism has virtually superseded form criticism, resulting in special emphasis on repetition, chiasm, inclusions, structure, and figurative language. Whether many of the features isolated in this manner result from authorial intention or not has yet to be established. That judgment applies particularly to analysis of structure, often the result of highly subjective reading, and to inclusions, which may be accidental, given the repetitive demands of Hebrew poetry and the limited vocabulary available to composers.

Not every interpreter focuses on the structure of a single psalm. Some critics examine the macrostructure, hoping to explain the overall shaping of the book of Psalms. Gerald H. Wilson has argued that the complete collection of five books is arranged to show how the covenant between God and David as king became bankrupt and the kingship of Yahweh took its place. Wilson thinks the presence of royal psalms at the beginning of Book I (2) and at the conclusion of Books II and III (72, 89) documents a move from an intimate relationship between the king and God and its reinforcement through ritualistic ceremony to a rehearsal of a wrenching rejection of the covenant with David. The purpose of these psalms (specifically 2, 72, 89) was to document the failure of the Davidic covenant. The initial psalm (1) emphasizes the individual relationship with God, whereas 2 stresses the corporate dimension. Books IV and V move in another direction entirely, demonstrating that Israel’s true home is God, the only dependable ruler. The heart of the Psalter, in this reading, resides in Book IV. This theological center clarifies the real nature of monarchy, a theocracy. Book V transfers to the people the former royal claims associated with David. The result is a resounding triumph of eschatological praise. The Psalter defines happiness (cf. 1:1, “Happy is the one who . . .”) in quite concrete ways, but at the heart of the definition is the concept of trust and refuge.

Other interpreters understand the overall structure of Psalms differently. Two of these views merit attention here: a movement from lament to praise, and an increasingly liturgical movement. The first attributes significance to the early positioning of laments, for praise cannot achieve its goal until religious people have wrestled with their own doubts and emerged from them in the way described so effectively in 73. The second approach acknowledges that the early laments emphasize David’s humanity and consequently the demise of his dynasty, but it recognizes the growing importance of liturgical guilds (Book III) and cultic events (pilgrimages and festivals; Book V: 120–134 for pilgrims, 113–118 for three major festivals). Notably, the opening word in 1:1 (ʾašrê) is more secular than bārûḵ (“blessed”). The closing exhortation, “Praise the Lord,” belongs to sacred discourse. This final psalm (150) has 10 hallĕlûyāhs (or hallĕlûhûs), or 13 if one counts the conclusion in v. 6 and the opening and closing ones. Carroll Stuhlmueller suggests that these numbers correspond to the Decalogue and the 13 attributes of Yahweh revealed to Moses in Exod. 34:6-7, or the 13 times God spoke in Gen. 1.

The rich theological dimension of the Psalter continues to press itself on Jews and Christians. The metaphors for God serve in prayer and worship to convey deep feelings of trust and abandonment. The psalmists praise God as king, judge, shepherd, rock, portion, light, warrior, father, and farmer. They describe the people in a role of dependency as vine, tree, sheep, quiver, and the like. They distinguish between the righteous and wicked, promising life in its fullness to the former and destruction to the latter. Such evil practitioners are likened to grass, chaff, and dust; in the language of Ps. 1, , their roots lack adequate water. Sinners did prosper, much to the chagrin of psalmists, but their prosperity was believed to be short-lived. A few psalmists probe deeply into traditional belief, in one instance breaking new ground and approaching, if not actually attaining, belief in life beyond the grave (73).

The book of Psalms has provided a reservoir from which poets draw in composing hymns, a practice already engaged in by composers of some psalms who produced mosaics of biblical passages (cf. 96–97, 119, 135). Individual psalms have contributed both language and sentiment for meditating about God and the law, and one psalm (23) has become a virtual icon in the United States. Another psalm (46) is the basis of Martin Luther’s hymn, “Ein Feste Burg.” The psalms may be Israel’s response to God’s self-manifestation, but to many modern worshippers they represent authentic worship. They plumb the depths of despair through which many pass at one time or another, and they soar to lofty heights of adoration, to which good people aspire. In short, from these majestic psalms one learns how to pray.

Bibliography. W. Brueggemann, The Message of the Psalms (Minneapolis, 1984); H. Gunkel, The Psalms: A Form-Critical Introduction (Philadelphia, 1967); W. L. Holladay, The Psalms Through Three Thousand Years (Minneapolis, 1993); H.-J. Kraus, Psalms 1–59 (Minneapolis, 1988); Psalms 60–150 (Minneapolis, 1989); J. L. Mays, Psalms. Interpretation (Louisville, 1994); P. D. Miller, Interpreting the Psalms (Philadelphia, 1986); S. Mowinckel, The Psalms in Israel’s Worship (Nashville, 1962); C. Westermann, Praise and Lament in the Psalms (Atlanta, 1981); G. H. Wilson, The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter. SBLDS 76 (Chico, 1985).

James L. Crenshaw

Prayer Tents Bible References - Prayer Tents

PSALMS, BOOK OF

Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (2000)